In order to investigate the structural features responsible for the cytotoxicity of the naturally occurring lignan nordihydroguaiaretic acid, the synthesis of four structural analogues of NDGA is proposed for the purpose of studying their oxidative metabolism. One analogue in particular (1), a mono-catechol analogue, is successfully synthesized employing a double Stobbe condensation approach. Following synthesis of this compound a series of oxidation experiments is performed consisting of: incubation in rat liver microsomes with and without the trapping agent glutathione (GSH), oxidation with mushroom tyrosinase, oxidation with silver oxide, and oxidation with horseradish peroxidase. Results are analyzed via HPLC and UPLC-MS. It is found that 1 does not autoxidize at pH 7.4 as NDGA does. Two products are produced during incubation of 1 in rat liver microsomes with UPLC-ESI(-)-MS results giving m/z of 879.2 and 574.18. This is consistent with 1 plus 2 GSH and 1 plus 1 GSH respectively; confirming 1 will oxidize to an electrophilic moiety. Oxidation with mushroom tyrosinase is found to produce high levels of product two with m/z 574.2. Oxidation with horseradish peroxidase is found to produce high levels of the m/z 879.2 product. Silver Oxide produced multiple products rather than the expected one major product, but most are found to be inconsistent with the products seen during rat liver microsomal incubation, and are not pursued.

Parmi les 57 cytochromes P450 identifiés lors du séquençage complet du génome humain, on en dénombre environ 15 dont on ne connaît pratiquement rien de leurs rôles physiologiques, de leurs substrats, et de leurs structures, d'où le nom de "P450 orphelins". Le CYP2U1 est l'un des cytochromes P450 les plus fortement exprimé au niveau du cerveau et du cervelet mais c'est aussi l'un des plus conservé parmi les différentes espèces du règne animal. Ce travail de thèse a tout d'abord consisté à optimiser les conditions d'expression du CYP2U1 sous une forme active. Un premier système d'expression dans la levure Saccharomyces Cerevisiae a permis une production d'un complexe CYP2U1-P450 réductase catalytiquement actif permettant des études de recherche de substrat. Un second système d'expression dans Escherichia Coli devrait permettre d'obtenir de plus grandes quantités d'enzyme soluble destinée à des études structurales. Dans un second temps, une recherche de substrats a été effectuée à l'aide d'analyse d'incubats par chromatographie liquide couplée à une détection par spectrométrie de masse. A ce jour, un screening dirigé de plus de soixante-dix molécules, substrats de P450s de la famille 2, a permis d'identifier les premiers substrats exogènes du CYP2U1, les analogues de terfénadone et la débrisoquine. D'autre part, une étude par modélisation moléculaire de la structure du CYP2U1 a été effectuée. Cette étude montre que le CYP2U1 diffère de tous les autres P450s par la présence d'un insert très spécifique dans son domaine N-terminal. Des modèles par homologie basés sur les structures cristallographiques des P450s de la famille 2 ont été construits. Ces modèles ont été validés par dynamique moléculaire et ont permis de proposer un mode d'interaction avec la membrane, d'identifier la position des canaux d'accès ainsi que de déterminer la topologie du site actif. Enfin, un docking des premiers substrats exogènes au sein du site actif du CYP2U1 a permis de confirmer la régioselectivité des hydroxylations catalysées par le CYP2U1.

In order to investigate the structural features responsible for the cytotoxicity of the naturally occurring lignan nordihydroguaiaretic acid, the synthesis of four structural analogues of NDGA is proposed for the purpose of studying their oxidative metabolism. One analogue in particular (1), a mono-catechol analogue, is successfully synthesized employing a double Stobbe condensation approach. Following synthesis of this compound a series of oxidation experiments is performed consisting of: incubation in rat liver microsomes with and without the trapping agent glutathione (GSH), oxidation with mushroom tyrosinase, oxidation with silver oxide, and oxidation with horseradish peroxidase. Results are analyzed via HPLC and UPLC-MS. It is found that 1 does not autoxidize at pH 7.4 as NDGA does. Two products are produced during incubation of 1 in rat liver microsomes with UPLC-ESI(-)-MS results giving m/z of 879.2 and 574.18. This is consistent with 1 plus 2 GSH and 1 plus 1 GSH respectively; confirming 1 will oxidize to an electrophilic moiety. Oxidation with mushroom tyrosinase is found to produce high levels of product two with m/z 574.2. Oxidation with horseradish peroxidase is found to produce high levels of the m/z 879.2 product. Silver Oxide produced multiple products rather than the expected one major product, but most are found to be inconsistent with the products seen during rat liver microsomal incubation, and are not pursued.

The health maintaining properties of citrus consumption are attributed to the wide assortment of bioactive compounds. Consumption of grapefruit along with certain medications, however, is posing a risk of drug toxicity and side reactions. The first study involved isolation of bioactive furocoumarins with a combination of chromatographic techniques and synthesis. Five furocoumarins namely, dihydroxybergamottin, paradisin A, bergamottin, bergaptol and geranylcoumarin were isolated from grapefruit and series of furocoumarin monomers and paradisin A were synthesized. The second study involved influence of pre- and post-harvest factors on the levels of furocoumarins in grapefruit juice. Considerable differences were observed in the levels of these compounds in different grapefruit cultivars. Ray Red showed the lowest levels of all three furocoumarins and Duncan contains the highest amount of DHB and bergamottin, where as the highest levels of paradisin A was observed in Star Ruby. The highest levels of DHB and bergamottin were found in Flame cultivar grown in California. The changes in the levels of these furocoumarins during the season in Rio Red and Marsh White grapefruit cultivars were evaluated. The third study investigated biological activities of grapefruit juices and furocoumarins. Grapefruit and Pummelo juices were found to be potent inhibitors of cytochrome CYP3A4 and CYP2C9 isoenzymes at 5% concentration while CYP2D6 was less affected. Among the five furocoumarins tested, the inhibitory potency was in the order of paradisin A>dihydroxybergamottin>bergamottin>bergaptol>geranylcoumarin at 0.1 µM to 0.1 mM concentrations. A fourth study investigated the effect of furocoumarins on bacterial auto-inducer signaling, and found that furocoumarins are potent inhibitors of AI-1 and AI-2 activities at 0.01% concentration. In a fifth study, involving synthesized furocoumarin monomers and dimer on anti-proliferative activities on normal and cancer cell lines, furocoumarins found to be non-toxic to normal cells. However, bergamottin showed a significant anti-proliferative activity in HT-29 and MCF-7 cell lines. This dissertation indicates that furocoumarins are bioactive compounds from grapefruit juice with potent inhibitory property of major drug metabolizing cytochrome P450 isoenzymes. Furocoumarins show a considerable variation between varieties, location and season. These results corroborate the involvement of furocoumarins in grapefruit drug interaction.

The electronic structures and reaction mechanisms of transition-metal complexes can be calculated accurately by density functional theory (DFT) in cooperation with the continuum solvation model. The palladium catalyzed Heck reaction, iron-model complexes for cytochrome P450 and superoxide reductase (SOR), and tetrairon hexathiolate hydrogenase model were investigated. The DFT calculations on the catalytic Heck reaction (between phenyl-bromide and ethylene to form the styrene product), catalyzed by palladium diphosphine indicate a four-step mechanism: oxidative addition of C6H5Br, migratory insertion of C6H5 to C2H4, b-hydride transfer/olefin elimination of styrene product, and catalyst regeneration by removal of HBr. For the oxidative addition, the rate-determining step, the reaction through monophosphinopalladium complex is more favorable than that through either the diphosphinopalladium or ethylene-bound monophosphinopalladium. In further study, for a steric phosphine, PtBu3, the oxidative-addition barrier is lower on monopalladium monophosphine than dipalladium diphosphine whereas for a small phosphine, PMe3, the oxidative addition proceeds more easily via dipalladium diphosphine. Of the phosphine-free palladium complexes examined: free-Pd, PdBr-, and Pd(h2-C2H4), the olefin-coordinated intermediate has the lowest barrier for the oxidativeaddition. P450 and SOR have the same first-coordination-sphere, Fe[N4S], at their active sites but proceed through different reaction paths. The different ground spin states of the intermediate FeIII(OOH)(SCH3)(L) model {L = porphyrin for P450 and four imidazoles for SOR} produce geometric and electronic structures that assist i) the protonation on distal oxygen for P450, which leads to O-O bond cleavage and formation of (FeIV=O)(SCH3)(L) H2O, and ii) the protonation on proximal oxygen for SOR, which leads to (FeIII-HOOH)(SCH3)(L) formation before the Fe-O bond cleavage and H2O2 production. The hydrogen bonding from explicit waters also stabilizes FeIII-HOOH over FeIV=O H2O products in SOR. The electrochemical hydrogen production by Fe4[MeC(CH2S)3]2(CO)8 (1) with 2,6-dimethylpyridinium (LutH ) were studied by the DFT calculations of proton-transfer free energies relative to LutH and reduction potentials (vs. Fc/Fc ) of possible intermediates. In hydrogen production by 1, the second, more highly reductive, applied potential (-1.58 V) has the advantage over the first applied potential (-1.22 V) in that the more highly reduced intermediates can more easily add protons to produce H2.

Cytochrome P450¡]CYP¡^2J2, the single member of human cytochromes P450 II J subfamily, plays an important role in the biosynthesis of biologically active cis-epoxyeicosatrienoic acids. An allelic variant named CYP 2J2*7, a relatively frequent G¡÷T substitution at position-50 relative to the transcription start site, which interrupts a critical Sp1 binding site, results in both decreased promoter activity in vitro and reduced circulating levels of CYP2J2 epoxygenase metabolites. Epoxyeicosatrienoic acid (EETs) are endogenously produced and incorporated into membrane phospholipids in the pancreas. Low concentrations of 5,6-EETs stimulate insulin secretion, whereas 8,9-, 11,12-, and 14,15-EETs stimulate glucagon secretion from the pancreas. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are ligand-activated transcription factors belonging to the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. EETs increased PPAR-£\ and PPAR-£^ transcription activity. PPAR-£\ and PPAR-£^ play a key role in the regulation of adipogenesis, lipid metabolism, insulin sensitivity and inflammation. Thus, genetic abnormalities in the function or expression of CYP2J2, the pathogenetic of enzymes may play a role in diabetes. The present study investigates whether CYP 2J2*7 gene polymorphism can be associated with type 2 diabetes in a Chinese population. We studied 2,073 Chinese type 2 diabetes patients and 704 control subjects without. CYP 2J2*7 gene polymorphism was determined by PCR-RFLP and real-time PCR. In both study groups, the genotype frequency distributions of this polymorphism were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The CYP2J2*7 genotype distribution or allele frequencies were not different between type 2 diabetes and control subjects. Diabetics with young age of onset¡]¡Ø35 years old¡^ had a higher frequency of T variant than that of the age of onset of greater than 35 years old and controls ( GG / GT + TT = 84.2% / 15.8% vs. 90.3% / 9.7% vs. 91.3% / 8.7%¡Fp = 0.018¡Ap = 0.027 ). CYP2J2*7 genotype had a statistically significant association with age of onset ( p for trend = 0.042 ). The HOMA-IR and HOMA-£] values were significantly higher in diabetic patients with young age of onset compared to those of late onset diabetics and controls. CYP2J2*7 polymorphism was associated with HOMA-IR and HOMA-£] in diabetics with young age of onset and controls, subjects and T variants had significant higher value of HOMA-IR and HOMA-£]¡]early onset diabetics¡GGG / GT + TT = 8.9 ¡Ó 6.1 / 6.4 ¡Ó 3.8, p=0.045¡Fcontrols¡GGG / GT + TT = 2.6 ¡Ó 1.1 / 2.1 ¡Ó 0.8, p = 0.007¡^.These findings suggest that CYP 2J2*7 polymorphism may play a role in the pathogenesis of young onset type 2 diabetes and family diabetic history.

ANALYSIS OF CYTOCHROME P4501A1 GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS IN PATIENTS WITH ISCHEMIC STROKE Adali, Ayse &Ccedil / inar M.Sc., Department of Biochemistry Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Orhan Adali Co-Supervisor: Dr. Birsen Can Demird&ouml / gen January 2011, 179 pages Stroke is the third leading cause of death worldwide and results in serious disabilities. Cytochrome P450 1A1 gene (CYP1A1) is a highly polymorphic gene encoding its corresponding xenobiotic metabolizing enzyme which is responsible from the metabolism of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are engaged with the formation of free radicals. Atherosclerosis is a major cause of ischemic stroke and this pathology may be associated with the disruption of vascular homeostasis due to the formation of these chemicals. The main objective of this study was to investigate the coding region (A4889G) and non-coding region (T6235C) polymorphisms of the CYP1A1 gene as a risk factor for ischemic stroke. The study group in Turkish population consisted of 226 unrelated ischemic stroke patients and 113 control subjects. There was no statistically significant difference between the groups with respect to age and gender. Total blood samples were obtained from G&uuml / lhane Military Medical Academy Hospital, Neurology Department, Ankara. In stroke patients, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking and obesity were at least 2 times more common and high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) was significantly lower than controls. The frequency of mutant allele 4889G was 0.445 in patients and was nearly the same with controls. The frequency of mutant allele 6235C was 0.151 in patients and was significantly higher in controls (0.226, P=0.015). The risk of diabetic, smoker and obese individuals having ischemic stroke was significantly higher in 4889G allele carriers (AG+GG / Odds ratio / OR= 2.1, 2.4 and 3, respectively). The risk of hypertensive and diabetic individuals having ischemic stroke was higher in 6235TT genotypic people (OR= 3 and 2.2, respectively). On the contrary, the risk of smoker and obese individuals having ischemic stroke was significantly higher in 6235 C allele carriers (OR=5.3 and 3.7, respectively). Logistic regression analysis revealed that hypertension, smoking, levels of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and HDL-C and 6235C allele were significant predictors of stroke. In this analysis, high level of LDL-C was found to be associated with almost 1.5-fold risk of ischemic stroke. On the other hand, HDL-C and having mutant 6235C allele decreased the risk of ischemic stroke 2.5 and 2-fold, respectively. This is the first study investigating the relation between A4889G polymorphism and stroke risk. Additionally, in Turkish population A4889G and T6235C polymorphisms were analyzed for the first time in terms of its relation to ischemic stroke. The present study demonstrated that the frequency of mutant 4889G allele was nearly the same in stroke patients and control subjects / whereas the frequency of mutant 6235 C allele was higher in control subjects than in stroke patients. Consequently, we decided that carrying mutant 4889 G allele does not constitute a risk for ischemic stroke and carrying mutant 6235C allele may have a protective effect against stroke.

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Selective antiretroviral! (ARV) drugs are primarily metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, characteristically predisposed to variation, and are therefore primarily responsible for ARV pharmacokinetic variability and associated drug interactions. For the majority of ARV drugs, the therapeutic window is narrow and imminent toxicities due to CYP inhibition or sub-therapeutic drug levels as a result of CYP induction is inevitable. Animals provide a metabolism replica to conduct detailed investigations. We endeavored to establish a rat model to screen for variability in metabolism of selective ARV drugs responsible for treatment failure and drug interactions, over time in the liver and serum. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 24) were divided into 6 groups: methylcellulose, 160mg/kg/day (n = 24) (control); efavirenz, 160mg/kg/day (n = 18); ritonavir, 20 mg/kg/day (n = 18); ritonavir, 20 mg/kg/day and verapamil 5 mg/kg/day (n = 18); Kaletra® (ritonavir/lopinavir), 20 mg/kg/day, (n = 18); Kaletra® (ritonavir/lopinavir), 20 mg/kg/day and verapamil 5 mg/kg/day (n = 18). Treatment duration varied from one day (single dose), 7 or 21 days. Blood samples were collected after decapitation on days 1, 7 and 21. A sensitive and rapid liquid chromatograph (LC) interfaced to a quadrupoie mass spectrometer (MS) and coupled with electrospray ionization (ESI) method was employed for the blood sample determinations. One single injection was required to simultaneously quantify efavirenz, lopinavir and ritonavir within the linear concentration range of 78 - 5000 ng/ml. Efavirenz blood levels increased statistically significantly (p < 0.05) from day 1 to day 21 with distinct steady state achievement prior to day 7. The levels of ritonavir increased statistically significantly (p < 0.05) from day 7 to 21 when administered alone and statistically significantly (p < 0.01) from day 1 to 21 when administered as the ritonavir/lopinavir combination. The levels of lopinavir also increased statistically significantly (p<0.01) from day 1 and 21 in the ritonavir/lopinavir combination. However, the inclusion of a P-glycoprotein inhibitor, verapamil, increased both the ritonavir (administered alone) and lopinavir blood levels significantly (p < 0.05) at day 1. The ritonavir levels were also significantly increased on day 21 (p < 0.05). When verapamil was added to the ritonavir/lopinavir combination the levels of ritonavir increased statistically significantly (p < 0.01) from day 1 to 21. A rat model can be used to detect changes in metabolism over time as measured by blood levels. The influence of drug interactions, such as verapamil, on ARV drug metabolism can be investigated by this model. These results will be substantiated by PCR liver results in the future. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.