This thesis examines British scholarly perceptions of Greek colonisation from the eighteenth century to the present. Beginning with a study of the ancient sources for Greek colonisation and the key themes which preoccupied ancient authors, the thesis proceeds to argue that, modifying recent interpretations of work from this age of empire, British scholarship did not, as a whole, simplistically distort ancient evidence so as to create a version of Greek colonisation which mirrored, in a self-congratulatory way, contemporary British experiences. We should therefore position this scholarship within its appropriate historical context (with special attention to politics, empire, colonisation, and perceptions of antiquity). In addition to enabling us to trace the impact of the great events of the modern era upon classical scholarship, in doing so we can also gain insight into the complexities, hopes, and anxieties which characterised British thinking about such themes as empire, colonisation, political freedom, and the place of Western civilisation in historical perspective.

The purpose of this thesis is to explore themes in the development of national ideology in Scotland and Greece largely in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The analysis consists of two pairs of case studies where, using the comparative method, the role of historiography in providing ‘mental maps’, precise boundaries for the nation in space and time, its application in constructing a national consensus on an acceptable past, and the use of the latter in consolidating a national identity, are explored in detail. This process followed intricate paths in both Scotland and Greece and displayed rifts and fissures in patterns thought common in the development of nationalism in Europe. The fundamental ideological challenges to which significant segments of the Scottish and Greek society had to respond are shown to have influenced their respective societies’ worldview until the present time. The resilience of a number of different valid perceptions of Scotland in the nineteenth century and the dichotomy between equally possible concepts of Greece demonstrate, in concluding, the fluidity of national identity and indeterminacy of their modern ethnogenesis as late as the eve of the Great War.

This thesis addresses building technology and the social implications of house construction contributing to the understanding of past societies. The spatiotemporal context of the study is the Neolithic period (ca. 6600/6500–3300/3200 cal BC) in northern Greece (Macedonia and Thrace). All available evidence from various excavations in the region is assembled and synthesised. The principal house types (semi-subterranean structures and above-ground dwellings) and their technological characteristics in terms of materials and techniques are discussed. In addition, the building remains from the late Middle/Late Neolithic settlement of Avgi (Kastoria, Greece) are thoroughly examined. Their study highlights the potentials of a detailed, micro-scale investigation and puts forth a methodology for the technological analysis of house rubble in the form of fire-hardened daub. The data deriving from both the survey of dwelling remains in northern Greece and the case study are examined within their wider sociocultural context. The technological repertoire of the region, although indicating the sharing of a common ‘architectural vocabulary’, reveals alternative chaînes opératoires and variability in different stages of the building process. Variability and patterning are more pronounced during the later stages of the Neolithic. The distribution of architectural choices does not suggest the existence of established and region-wide shared architectural traditions. However, the circulation of specific techniques and conceptions points to the operation of overlapping networks of technological and social interaction. At the site-specific scale, sameness and standardisation in building technology are the prominent themes. Nevertheless, different trends towards standardisation or variability are observed and are approached in terms of social interaction and intra-community dynamics. What is more, domestic architecture is not necessarily static in the long term. Change occurs and is often associated with the transformation of these dynamics. Occasional evidence of intra-site variability in building techniques and the more pronounced anchoring into space during the later stages of the Neolithic period are considered as a result of the changing relationship between social units and the community. The appearance of stone and mud(brick) architecture in Late Neolithic central Macedonia is approached in these terms.

This thesis provides a first attempt to bring together archaeological and literary sources from two main Artemis sanctuaries in the hope of contributing to building a clearer picture of her cult. First Artemis’ character is described as that of a mother of the gods, a goddess of wilderness, animals and hunt; a goddess of birth, infants and children (and young animals); as well as a goddess of youths and marriage:rites of passage. These descriptions are followed by a section that provides an up-to-date account of the archaeological record of the sanctuaries of Artemis Orthia at Sparta and Artemis Ephesia at Ephesus. For comparison with those the site of Athena Alea at Tegea is brought in. These three accounts are a full study of the architectural development and the range of artefacts in different materials. In the analysis, the different characters of Artemis are further explored by looking at the aspects of her cult through the archaeology relating to the cult and the rites of passage taking place at the sites. These rites of passage are reconstructed by using the literary accounts. The conclusion is a description of Artemis and her cult based on the character of this distinctive goddess through archaeological and literary evidence.

This thesis presents an analysis of glyptic motifs of a religious nature attested on the Greek mainland in the Late Helladic period and on Crete post Late Minoan IB. Its purpose is to ascertain to what extent such an analysis can, firstly, expand our knowledge of religious practices in the Late Bronze Age Aegean, and, secondly, elucidate the nature of the relationship between Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece. This was achieved through the classification and analysis of five glyptic themes generally regarded as possessing religious significance in scholarship. These are anthropomorphic figures and non-anthropomorphic elements flanked by animals, seated women, figures with architecture, and animal sacrifice. This contention was critically appraised by developing a widely applicable methodology that demonstrated that many possessed religious aspects. The comparative analysis between the glyptic iconography of the Cretan Neopalatial Period and that of the Greek mainland and post-Late Minoan IB Crete identified specific changes that occurred from \(circa\) 1470 BCE onwards and established which of these originated on the mainland. As a result, I have defined a group of iconographic representations that provide specific information regarding religious practices in the Late Bronze Age Aegean and clarified the relationship between religious iconography and reality.

This research explores the region of Arkadia in the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age using an interpretative and phenomenologically inspired approach. It is region associated with many myths pointing to a continuing population throughout the period, yet beset with a problematic archaeological record. This has been the result of a number of factors ranging from the nature of the landscape to the history of research. However, the ability to locate sites of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age within the landscape, allows insight into a region we had little hope of enlightening using more conventional approaches to the archaeological record. This theoretical and methodological stance is illustrated through an exploration of different aspects of the human experience such as religion, death and burial and the everyday. The ways in which these aspects can and usually are interpreted are considered, followed by a number of case studies, which are employed to explore how human actions were embedded within and informed by the very physicality of the landscape, and the differences apparent throughout time.

This is the first full-length, bioergographical study devoted to Manuel Chrysaphes, a fifteenth century composer, theorist, and singer, who worked in the imperial court of Constantinople as lampadarios (a director of the imperial choirs) under the final two emperors of Byzantium, residing in Mistra, Serbia, and Crete after the disintegration of the Empire in 1453. Aside from Edward Williams’ study dedicated to the fourteenth-century musical reforms of Ioannes Koukouzeles, there are virtually no complete studies on notable musicians of the late Byzantine Empire. This dearth of scholarship is all the more remarkable considering these musicians’ prodigious output and the emphasis on the individual and the act of composition evident in manuscripts and treatises of Byzantine psalmody. Manuel Chrysaphes was the probable scribe of four codices, the author of an important theoretical treatise, and the composer of approximately 300 works, which range from simple psalmody to virtuosic chants composed in the florid, kalophonic style. This study embraces Chrysaphes’ multifaceted personality as scribe, theorist, and composer, in order to bring his aesthetics and compositional voice into relief. A detailed analysis of Chrysaphes’ arrangement and settings of the Anoixantaria (verses and troped refrains based on Psalm 103) not only serves to update our knowledge of evening worship in late Byzantium, but also provides a starting point towards understanding the identifiable elements of Chrysaphes’ style as composer. More broadly, this thesis attempts to define the figure of composer in the context of the late medieval world of the Christian East. Chrysaphes took the kalophonic tradition he inherited – a tradition of elaborate psalmody in which individual composers figured prominently – to its logical extreme, filling out repertories with his own compositions, innovating in certain areas, and defending the traditions of his predecessors elsewhere. Chrysaphes, a scribe, singer, and choir director, operated first and foremost as a selfconsciously authorial composer. His prolific activity as author of hundreds of veritable ‘art works’ nevertheless leaves us with the impression that these were not detractors from, but rather, instruments of worship and spiritual perfection.

Throughout the post-war period, Greece has allocated between five and six per cent of her annual Gross Domestic Product to defence. On many occasions she had the highest defence burden in NATO and Europe. There is evidence that the level, form and content of this defence expenditure have been determined by a combination of both external and internal factors. Greek military spending needs to be understood in relation to external security concerns and in particular in terms of her relations with Turkey. Membership of NATO, U.S. foreign policies and internal security factors have also influenced military expenditure. There is no substantial evidence to suggest that military expenditure has so far been used as a tool of economic policy. Dependency on imported weapons systems will not be substantially reduced by domestic arms production. It will merely be replaced by another form of dependency. Neither will domestic arms production generate appreciable backward and forward linkages which could pull the country out of the present economic crisis. The peculiarities of Greek development have created long term dependency on imported technology and capital goods which will not be reduced by arms production. Foreign military transfers have been instrumental in forging these dependency links and keeping the country open to foreign capital to operate under free and unregulated conditions. The links between military expenditure and economic growth are first established at the growth model level. They are then estimated in the context of a growth model directly and indirectly through the effect on savings and investment. The growth rate is treated as a function of both exogenous and endogenous variables and the impact of defence spending is estimated by two stage least squares in a series of equations. The results indicate that military expenditure has adversely affected growth in the period 1953-84 mainly through the crowing out of investment.

This thesis examines Demosthenes’ rhetorical use of Athenian ideology in his deliberative speeches from 351-341 BCE. I argue that during this period of crisis, which is usually narrated in terms of conflict with Macedonia, Demosthenes confronts an internal crisis within the Assembly. While Demosthenes’ deliberative speeches have traditionally been defined as ‘Philippic’, this thesis argues that the speeches do not prioritise an ‘Anti- Macedonian’ agenda, but rather focus on confronting the corruption of the deliberative decision-making process. Due to an attitude of apathy and neglect, Demosthenes’ rhetoric suggests that their external problems are a direct product of this internal crisis, both of which are perpetuated by their failure to recognise how self-sabotaging practices undermine the polis from within. As he asserts in On the Chersonese and the Third Philippic, they cannot hope to deal with their external situation before they deal with their internal crisis. To address this, I argue that Demosthenes’ parrhēsia interweaves criticism of the dēmos with the praise of Athens, using social memory and past exempla both to recall and prescribe didactically the attitudes central to Athenian identity. As such, I propose that the deliberative speeches do not confront a ‘Macedonian Question’, but a fundamentally Athenian one.

This thesis investigates the metics, or resident aliens, in democratic Athens and how they affected ideas of identity, with a particular focus on the fourth century BC. It looks at definitions of the metics and how the restrictions and obligations which marked their status operated; how these affected their lives and their image, in their own eyes and those of the Athenians; how the Athenians erected and maintained a boundary of status and identity between themselves and the metics, in theory and in practice; and how individuals who crossed this boundary could present themselves and be characterised, especially in the public context of the lawcourts. The argument is that the metics served as a contradiction of and challenge to Athenian ideas about who they were and what made them different from others. This challenge was met with responses which demonstrate the flexibility of identity in Athens, and its capacity for variety, reinvention and contradiction.