No description available.

Diese Arbeit hatte zum Ziel, die Interkonversion der adrenalen Prekursor-Hormone DHEA und seines Sulfatesters DHEAS in Leberzellen zu untersuchen. Zunächst konnte mit Hilfe semiquantitativer RT-PCR gezeigt werden, dass die Expression der an der Interkonversion von DHEA und DHEAS beteiligten Schlüsselenzyme (STS, SULT2A1, SULT2B1a und SULT2B1b) in der Leberzelllinie HepG2 der von normalen Lebergewebe entspricht und sich die HepG2-Zellen somit als Modell für die physiologischen Abläufe in der menschlichen Leber eignen. Es zeigte sich weiterhin, dass sowohl in der Leber als auch in den HepG2-Zellen die Sulfotransferase SULT2A1 im Vergleich zu den beiden SULT2B1-Isoformen deutlich stärker exprimiert wird und daher eine prädominante Rolle für die Sulfonierung von DHEA spielen dürfte. Weiterhin zeigte sich, dass in den HepG2 Zellen keine Konversion von DHEAS zu DHEA zu beobachten war. Umgekehrt konnte jedoch eine deutliche Konversion von DHEA zu DHEAS gezeigt werden. Entgegen der bisherigen Vorstellung, scheint daher die Leber kein Ort der DHEA-Regenerierung aus DHEAS zu sein. Ausserdem wurde der Einfluss der proinflammatorischen Zytokinen (IL-6, Il-1beta; und TNF-alpha;) auf die Interkonversion von DHEA und DHEAS untersucht, wobei sich kein Einfluss auf die Enzymaktivität von STS oder SULT beobachten ließ. Im Gegensatz dazu fand sich jedoch eine konzentrationsabhängige Aktivierung der Sulfotransferase-Aktivität nach Inkubation mit Dexamethason, das ein potentes antiinflammatorisches Therapeutikum darstellt. / The purpose of this dissertation was to explore the interconversion of the adrenal precursor hormone DHEA and DHEAS in liver cells. First of all I could show by using RT-PCR that the expression of the enzymes that interconvert DHEA and DHEAS (STS, SULT2A1, SULT2B1a und SULT2B1b) in hepatic HepG2 cells is the same as in normal liver cells, hence it is an appropriate model for the analysis of the physiological sequences in human liver. However, there was no expression of SULT2B1a and only weak expression of isoform b in both human liver and HepG2 cells, indicating that hepatic DHEA sulfonation is mainly catalyzed by DHEA sulfotransferase (SULT2A1). Furthermore it could be shown that there was no conversion from DHEAS to DHEA in HepG2 cells, but a significant conversion from DHEA to DHEAS. Therefore the liver doesn’t seem to be the place for continuous regeneration of DHEA from DHEAS in the human body. Regarding the influence of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6, Il-1beta; and TNF-alpha) on the interconversion of DHEA or DHEAS there was no effect on the enzyme activity of the STS or SULT to be monitored. In contrast there was a dose-dependent activation of the sulfotransferase activity after incubation with dexamethason.

Cardiomyopathies are often initiated by diastolic dysfunction, and treatment of diastolic dysfunction remains empirical with an emphasis on prevention. This dissertation focuses on the mechanism of cardiomyopathy and diastolic dysfunction during aging and immune dysfunction. The governing hypothesis is that altered cytokine release such as that seen during aging and immune dysfunction can lead to diastolic dysfunction and myocardial fibrosis. Our first study examined the role of aging and immunosenescence on the cardiac extracellular matrix (ECM) and left ventricular stiffness. We demonstrated age-related immune dysfunction, myocardial fibrosis, and diastolic dysfunction. We also found that exogenous dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), an adrenal steroid hormone popular due to its anti-aging effects, partially reversed these pathologies in aged mice. In this model, fibrosis and its reversal were associated with altered regulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) and collagen cross-linking. We propose two mechanisms for the protective effects of DHEA: (1) a direct effect on cardiac fibroblasts, or (2) downstream effects of immune modulation. In the subsequent study, we found that DHEA is capable of directly altering cardiac fibroblasts, suggesting a mechanism for the effects of DHEA on cardiac function. Due to pleiotropic effects of DHEA, we decided to specifically target the immune system using T-cell receptor peptides during murine AIDS(mAIDS). Mice with mAIDS suffer from cardiomyopathy in the absence of myocarditis and opportunistic pathogens. We demonstrated that reversal of immune dysfunction in mAIDS was associated with reversal of myocardial fibrosis and ventricular stiffness. In conclusion, we have demonstrated age- and immune-related diastolic dysfunction that can be reversed by modulation of the T-cells of the immune system. Immune modulation should be further investigated as a therapeutic target to treat diastolic dysfunction during immune dysfunction. We also found that MMPs and collagen cross-linking are highly involved in extracellular matrix regulation in the models used in this dissertation.

The classical model of sexual differentiation states that genes influence gonadal differentiation, and gonadal hormones then drive sexual differentiation throughout development. This model has been called into question by research, especially in songbirds, providing evidence for alternative mechanisms like direct effect of genes and local production of steroids via de novo synthesis or local metabolism of steroid precursors like DHEA, which can be metabolized to testosterone and E₂. In order to assess the role of local steroid production on sexual differentiation in songbirds, levels of DHEA and E₂ were measured in brachial and jugular plasma, as well as brain and peripheral tissues in zebra finches at critical ages during development and in adulthood. DHEA levels in brachial and jugular plasma peaked at P30 and higher DHEA levels in jugular plasma were found in males relative to females at P30. Also, at P30, higher DHEA levels were found in rostral telencephalon in females relative to males. The findings of this study indicate that DHEA may play a role in sexual differentiation of songbirds. Surprisingly, E₂ was non-detectable in many plasma and tissue samples. Higher E₂ was found in the diencephalon in females relative to males at P3/P4 and higher E₂ was found in gonads in adult females relative to males. There was little evidence to suggest that E₂ is synthesized de novo in the brain, although perhaps E₂ is being rapidly metabolized into another estrogen or E₂ synthesis is more localized in the synapse. The findings of this study support the role of alternative mechanisms like de novo steroid synthesis and local metabolism of steroid precursors and challenge the role of classical mechanisms of sexual differentiation in songbirds. Also, these findings may have important implications for sex differences, which develop independently of gonadal hormones, in other animal species.

The classical model of sexual differentiation states that genes influence gonadal differentiation, and gonadal hormones then drive sexual differentiation throughout development. This model has been called into question by research, especially in songbirds, providing evidence for alternative mechanisms like direct effect of genes and local production of steroids via de novo synthesis or local metabolism of steroid precursors like DHEA, which can be metabolized to testosterone and E₂. In order to assess the role of local steroid production on sexual differentiation in songbirds, levels of DHEA and E₂ were measured in brachial and jugular plasma, as well as brain and peripheral tissues in zebra finches at critical ages during development and in adulthood. DHEA levels in brachial and jugular plasma peaked at P30 and higher DHEA levels in jugular plasma were found in males relative to females at P30. Also, at P30, higher DHEA levels were found in rostral telencephalon in females relative to males. The findings of this study indicate that DHEA may play a role in sexual differentiation of songbirds. Surprisingly, E₂ was non-detectable in many plasma and tissue samples. Higher E₂ was found in the diencephalon in females relative to males at P3/P4 and higher E₂ was found in gonads in adult females relative to males. There was little evidence to suggest that E₂ is synthesized de novo in the brain, although perhaps E₂ is being rapidly metabolized into another estrogen or E₂ synthesis is more localized in the synapse. The findings of this study support the role of alternative mechanisms like de novo steroid synthesis and local metabolism of steroid precursors and challenge the role of classical mechanisms of sexual differentiation in songbirds. Also, these findings may have important implications for sex differences, which develop independently of gonadal hormones, in other animal species.

The classical model of sexual differentiation states that genes influence gonadal differentiation, and gonadal hormones then drive sexual differentiation throughout development. This model has been called into question by research, especially in songbirds, providing evidence for alternative mechanisms like direct effect of genes and local production of steroids via de novo synthesis or local metabolism of steroid precursors like DHEA, which can be metabolized to testosterone and E₂. In order to assess the role of local steroid production on sexual differentiation in songbirds, levels of DHEA and E₂ were measured in brachial and jugular plasma, as well as brain and peripheral tissues in zebra finches at critical ages during development and in adulthood. DHEA levels in brachial and jugular plasma peaked at P30 and higher DHEA levels in jugular plasma were found in males relative to females at P30. Also, at P30, higher DHEA levels were found in rostral telencephalon in females relative to males. The findings of this study indicate that DHEA may play a role in sexual differentiation of songbirds. Surprisingly, E₂ was non-detectable in many plasma and tissue samples. Higher E₂ was found in the diencephalon in females relative to males at P3/P4 and higher E₂ was found in gonads in adult females relative to males. There was little evidence to suggest that E₂ is synthesized de novo in the brain, although perhaps E₂ is being rapidly metabolized into another estrogen or E₂ synthesis is more localized in the synapse. The findings of this study support the role of alternative mechanisms like de novo steroid synthesis and local metabolism of steroid precursors and challenge the role of classical mechanisms of sexual differentiation in songbirds. Also, these findings may have important implications for sex differences, which develop independently of gonadal hormones, in other animal species. / Medicine, Faculty of / Graduate

No / Peripheral intracrine sex steroid synthesis from adrenal precursors dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and DHEA-sulfate has evolved in humans. We sought to establish if there are differences in intracrine, paracrine, and endocrine regulation of sex steroids by primary cultures of human skin epidermal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts. Microarray analysis identified multifunctional genes modulated by steroids, quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) mRNA expression, enzymatic assay aromatase activity, scratch assay cell migration, immunocytochemistry α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and collagen gel fibroblast contraction. All steroidogenic components were present, although only keratinocytes expressed the organic anion organic anion transporter protein (OATP) 2B1 transporter. Both expressed the G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER1). Steroids modulated multifunctional genes, up-regulating genes important in repair and aging [angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4), chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (CXCL1), lamin B1 (LMNB1), and thioredoxin interacting protein (TXNIP)]. DHEA-sulfate (DHEA-S), DHEA, and 17β-estradiol stimulated keratinocyte and fibroblast migration at early (4 h) and late (24–48 h) time points, suggesting involvement of genomic and nongenomic signaling. Migration was blocked by aromatase and steroid sulfatase (STS) inhibitors confirming intracrine synthesis to estrogen. Testosterone had little effect, implying it is not an intermediate. Steroids stimulated fibroblast contraction but not α-SMA expression. Mechanical wounding reduced fibroblast aromatase activity but increased keratinocyte activity, amplifying the bioavailability of intracellular estrogen. Cultured fibroblasts and keratinocytes provide a biologically relevant model system to investigate the complex pathways of sex steroid intracrinology in human skin.—Pomari, E., Valle, L. D., Pertile, P., Colombo, L., and Thornton, M. J. Intracrine sex steroid synthesis and signaling in human epidermal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts.

A doença de Chagas representa um importante problema para a Saúde Publica na América Latina, onde o tratamento é limitado principalmente na fase crônica. Mesmo controlando a replicação parasitária, a completa eliminação do parasita e a cura da doença não são observadas de forma consistente. A ativação do eixo adrenal-hipotálamo-hipófise possui um papel importante na supressão do sistema imune. Neste trabalho foram observados os efeitos do estresse repetitivo em ratos Wistar infectados com a cepa Y de Trypanosoma cruzi durante as fases aguda e crônica da doença experimental, através da exposição dos animais a vapores de éter por um minuto duas vezes ao dia. O estresse repetitivo provocou aumento do número de parasitas e a administração de DHEA reduziu significantemente a parasitemia durante a fase aguda. A resposta TH-1 foi mais vigorosa em animais submetidos à terapia com DHEA mesmo quando submetidos ao estresse repetitivo. Assim TNF-, IFN-, IL-2, NO e linfoproliferação mostraram concentrações mais elevadas quando comparadas aos animais não submetidos à terapia. A resposta TH-2 nos grupos sem suplementação com DHEA, IL-4 e IL-10 apresentaram valores reduzidos nos animais infectados e estressados submetidos à terapia com DHEA. A concentração de corticosterona mostrou-se elevada para animais estressados e infectados em relação aos animais submetidos a terapia com DHEA. A histopatologia apresentou redução no número de neurônios nas fases aguda e crônica para os animais estressados e infectados, os mesmos apresentaram desorganização tecidual cardíaca com aumento do número de ninhos de amastigotas e moderado processo inflamatório por células mononucleares. Estes resultados sugerem que o estresse repetitivo pode ser considerado como ii fator importante durante o desenvolvimento da doença de Chagas experimental, aumentando sua patogênese através de distúrbios do sistema imune do hospedeiro. / Chagas disease represents an important public health problem in Latin American, where the treatment is limited especially to chronic phase, besides the harmful side effects. Although controlling the parasite replication, the complete elimination of the etiologic agent still was not observed. Activation of the hypothalamuspituitaryadrenal axis plays a major role in the suppression of the immune system. We have investigated the effects of repetitive stress on Wistar rats infected with the Y strain of Trypanosoma cruzi during the acute and chronic phases of the experimental disease by the exposure to ether vapor for one minute twice a day. Repetitive stress resulted in an elevated number of circulating parasites and DHEA administration reduced significantly blood parasites during the acute phase. Several immunological parameters were evaluated. TH-1 response was more vigorous in animals submitted to DHEA therapy even those which underwent repetitive stress. So, TNF-, IFN-, IL-2, NO and lymphoproliferation displayed enhanced concentrations as compared to unsupplied animals. The TH-2 immune response in groups without DHEA supplementation, showed reduce values for IL-4 and IL-10 in groups infected and stressed submitted to DHEA therapy. Enhanced corticosterone concentration was a observed for infected and stressed animals. DHEA triggered reduced levels of corticosterone. The histopathology revealed that stressed animals showed a reduction in the number of neurons. Histological sections of heart smears from infected and stressed animals displayed deep tissue disorganization, increased parasite burdens and moderate diffused mononuclear inflammatory process. These results suggest that repetitive stress could be considered an iv important factor during development of experimental Chagas disease, enhancing pathogenesis through disturbance of the hosts immune system.

Η Νόσος του Πάρκινσον αποτελεί τη δεύτερη συχνότερη νευροεκφυλιστική ασθένεια μετά τη νόσο του Αλτσχάιμερ, η οποία εμφανίζεται στο 2% των ανθρώπων άνω των 65 ετών. Η μέχρι στιγμής αντιμετώπισή της περιορίζεται σχεδόν αποκλειστικά στη χορήγηση του προδρόμου μορίου της ντοπαμίνης L-DOPA, με σκοπό την αντιμετώπιση των κινητικών προβλημάτων της ασθένειας, η οποία επιφέρει όμως ισχυρές παρενέργειες. Για το λόγο αυτό κρίνεται σκόπιμη η εύρεση νευροπροστατευτικών ουσιών οι οποίες θα καθυστερούν ή θα αναστέλλουν την εξέλιξη της νόσου, με τις ελάχιστες δυνατές παρενέργειες. Ο μυς weaver, φέρει μία αυτοσωμική υπολειπόμενη μετάλλαξη στο γονίδιο Girk2 και αποτελεί το μοναδικό γενετικό μοντέλο της νόσου του Πάρκινσον, το οποίο εμφανίζει προοδευτική απώλεια των ντοπαμινεργικών νευρώνων της μέλαινας ουσίας, η οποία συμβαίνει ενδογενώς. Για το λόγο αυτό θεωρείται ιδανικό για μελέτες νευροπροστασίας. Τόσο in vitro, όσο και in vivo μελέτες στο μοντέλο weaver αλλά και σε άλλα παρκινσονικά μοντέλα (συμπεριλαμβανομένων προηγούμενων αποτελεσμάτων της ομάδας μας, (Διδακτορική Διατριβή Κωνσταντίνου Μποτσάκη, Σεπτέμβριος 2013) αναδεικνύουν ότι το ενδογενές νευροστεροειδές δεϋδροεπιανδροστερόνη (DHEA), καθώς και ο θειικός της εστέρας (DHEA-S) ασκούν ισχυρότατη νευροπροστατευτική δράση στους ντοπαμινεργικούς νευρώνες της μέλαινας ουσίας των παρκινσονικών αυτών ζώων. Επιπλέον, το συνθετικό ανάλογο του DHEA 17β-spiro[5-androstene-17,20-oxiran]-3β-ol (ΒΝΝ-50), το οποίο δεν μεταβολίζεται ενδογενώς σε οιστρογόνα (και θα μπορούσε κατά συνέπεια να είναι κατάλληλο για κλινική χρήση), φαίνεται να ασκεί την ίδια νευροπροστατευτική επίδραση στους ντοπαμινεργικούς νευρώνες της μέλαινας ουσίας των ομοζυγωτικών μυών weaver (Δ.Δ Κωνσταντίνου Μποτσάκη, Σεπτέμβριος 2013), αλλά και σε κυτταροκαλλιέργειες PC12 κυττάρων. Σκοπός της παρούσας εργασίας ήταν η διερεύνηση του μηχανισμού δράσης των νευροπροστατευτικών αυτών ουσιών. Για το λόγο αυτό διερευνήθηκε η πιθανή αντιαποπτωτική δράση των DHEA-S και ΒΝΝ-50, μέσω προσδιορισμού του λόγου των επιπέδων της αντιαποπτωτικής πρωτεΐνης Bcl-2 προς τα επίπεδα της προαποπτωτικής πρωτεΐνης Bax. Ο προσδιορισμός αυτός πραγματοποιήθηκε στο μεσεγκέφαλο φυσιολογικών μυών και μυών weaver ηλικίας Ρ21 ημερών, μετά από χρόνια χορήγηση των νευροστεροειδών (από την Ρ1 έως την Ρ21). Επιπλέον, διερευνήθηκε η πιθανή αντιοξειδωτική δράση του νευροστεροειδούς ΒΝΝ-50, μέσω του προσδιορισμού της ελεύθερης (frMDA) και προσδεδεμένης σε πρωτεΐνες (prMDA) μαλονικής διαλδεΰδης, στο μεσεγκέφαλο φυσιολογικών μυών και μυών weaver ηλικίας Ρ21 ημερών, μετά από χρόνια χορήγηση του αναλόγου (από την Ρ1 έως την Ρ21). Τα αποτελέσματα ανέδειξαν ότι τόσο το DHEA-S, όσο και το BNN-50 ασκούν ισχυρή αντιαποπτωτική δράση στο μεσεγκέφαλο των μυών weaver, αυξάνοντας τον λόγο Bcl-2/Bax (o οποίος εμφανίζεται μειωμένος στo μεσεγκέφαλο των wv/wv ζώων, σε σχέση με τα φυσιολογικά ζώα) κατά 74% και 83% αντίστοιχα, σε σχέση με τα weaver μύες που έλαβαν φυσιολογικό ορό. Η δράση αυτή επιτυχάνεται με διαφορετικό τρόπο, ανάμεσα στα δύο νευροστεροειδή. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, το DHEA-S επαναφέρει πλήρως τα μειωμένα επίπεδα της αντιαποπτωτικής πρωτεΐνης Bcl-2 στo μεσεγκέφαλο των wv/wv ζώων χωρίς να επηρεάζει τα επίπεδα της προαποπτωτικής πρωτεΐνης Bax, ενώ το ΒΝΝ-50 επαναφέρει πλήρως τα αυξημένα επίπεδα της προαποπτωτικής πρωτεΐνης Βax στo μεσεγκέφαλο των wv/wv ζώων, χωρίς να επηρεάζει τα επίπεδα της αντιαποπτωτικής πρωτεΐνης Bcl-2. Επιπλέον, κατέστει σαφές ότι το στεροειδές ΒΝΝ-50 κατέχει και αντιοξειδωτική δράση, αφού επάγει τη δραματική μείωση των επιπέδων της ολικής μαλονικής διαλδεΰδης, τελικού προϊόντος της υπεροξείδωσης των λιπιδίων που εμφανίζεται αυξημένη στo μεσεγκέφαλο των wv/wv ζώων, φέρνοντάς τα κοντά στα φυσιολογικά επίπεδα. Η μείωση αυτή οφείλεται αποκλειστικά στη μείωση των επιπέδων της προσδεδεμένης σε πρωτεΐνες και όχι της ελεύθερης ΜDA, πιθανότατα λόγω της πολύ μεγαλύτερης αύξησης της πρώτης σε σχέση με τη δεύτερη, στο μεσεγκέφαλο των ομοζυγωτικών weaver μυών. Τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα οδηγούν στο συμπέρασμα ότι τα νευροστεροειδή DHEA-S και ΒΝΝ-50 ασκούν τη νευροπροστατευτική τους επίδραση δρώντας πλειοτροπικά, τουλάχιστον μέσω δύο γραμμών δράσης, της αντιαποπτωτικής και αντιοξειδωτικής. Το γεγονός αυτό είναι ιδιαίτερα σημαντικό καθώς για πρώτη φορά, γίνεται μελέτη του μηχανισμού της δράσης του στεροειδούς ΒΝΝ-50 in vivo. Καθώς το BNN-50 δεν μεταβολίζεται ενδογενώς σε φυλετικές ορμόνες, και θα μπορούσε συνεπώς να είναι κατάλληλο για κλινική χρήση, κρίνεται απαραίτητη η περαιτέρω διερεύνηση του μηχανισμού δράσης του, ώστε να διευκρινιστεί η πιθανή ικανότητα χρήσης του για αντιμετώπιση της σοβαρής αυτής νόσου, μελλοντικά. / Parkinson’s Disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, affecting about 2% of the population aged over 65 years old. The most common treatment of the disease until now, is the administration of L-DOPA, a dopamine precursor, in order to reduce the locomotive defects caused by the disease, a drug that causes severe side effects. Hence, the discovery of neuroprotective compounds that can prohibit or at least prolong the progression of the disease is highly required. The weaver mouse carries an autosomic recessive mutation at the Girk-2 gene and consists the only non-invasive genetic model of Parkinson’s Disease that exhibits progressive neurodegeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Thus, it is ideal for neuroprotection studies. The endogenous neurosteroif dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) as well as its sulphated ester (DHEA-S) exhibit a significant neuroprotective effect on the dopaminergic neurons of the weaver mouse (K. Botsakis phD thesis, 2013), as well as in other in vitro and in vivo studies. Additionally, the synthetic analogue of DHEA 17β-spiro[5-androstene-17,20-oxiran]-3β-ol (BNN-50), that is not metabolized to estrogens in vivo, exhibits the same neuroprotective effect on the dopaminergic neurons of the weaver mouse as DHEA-S (K. Botsakis phD thesis, 2013) as well as in PC12 cell cultures. The aim of this study was the investigation of the mechanism of action of DHEA-S and BNN-50 in vivo. To that extend, we investigated the possible antiapoptotic action of DHEA-S and BNN -50 by determining the ratio of the levels of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 to the levels of pro-apoptotic protein Bax. The assay was performed in the midbrain of control mice and omozygous weaver mice at P21, after chronic administration of neurosteroids ( from P1 to P21 ) . Furthermore , we investigated the potential antioxidant properties of the neurosteroid BNN -50 , through the determination of free (frMDA) and protein-bound (prMDA) malonic dialdeyde in the midbrain of control mice and omozygous weaver mice at P21 after chronic administration of analogue ( from P1 to P21 ) . The results revealed that DHEA-S as well as the BNN-50 exert a very important antiapoptotic action in the weaver mouse midbrain, increasing the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax (that is reduced in the midbrain of the wv / wv animals, compared to control) by 74 % and 83 % respectively, compared with the weaver mice that received saline. This antiapoptotic action is achieved in different ways for the two neurosteroids . More specifically, DHEA-S fully restore the reduced levels of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 in the wv/wv midbrain, without affecting the levels of the proapoptotic protein Bax, while the BNN -50 fully restored the elevated levels of proapoptotic protein Bax in the wv/wv midbrain, without affecting the levels of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2. Moreover , it became clear that the steroid BNN -50 possesses significant antioxidant activity, inducing a dramatic reduction in the levels of total MDA , the end product of lipid peroxidation that is displayed increased in the wv/wv midbrain, bringing the MDA level almost to control. The decrease is due to the reduction of the levels of protein-bound and not free MDA , probably due to the much higher increase of the first than the second , in the midbrain of homozygous weaver mice . The aforementioned results suggest that thee neurosteroids DHEA-S and BNN -50 exert their neuroprotective effects by acting pleiotropically , at least through two lines of action, one antiapoptotic and one antioxidant . This is particularly important because for the first time , there is a study of the mechanism of action of steroid BNN -50 in vivo. As BNN-50 is not metabolized endogenously in sex hormones , it could therefore be suitable for clinical use. Hence, it is necessary to further investigate the mechanism of action of the steroid, in order to clarify its possible usability for treating this serious disease in the future .

A doença de Chagas representa um importante problema para a Saúde Publica na América Latina, onde o tratamento é limitado principalmente na fase crônica. Mesmo controlando a replicação parasitária, a completa eliminação do parasita e a cura da doença não são observadas de forma consistente. A ativação do eixo adrenal-hipotálamo-hipófise possui um papel importante na supressão do sistema imune. Neste trabalho foram observados os efeitos do estresse repetitivo em ratos Wistar infectados com a cepa Y de Trypanosoma cruzi durante as fases aguda e crônica da doença experimental, através da exposição dos animais a vapores de éter por um minuto duas vezes ao dia. O estresse repetitivo provocou aumento do número de parasitas e a administração de DHEA reduziu significantemente a parasitemia durante a fase aguda. A resposta TH-1 foi mais vigorosa em animais submetidos à terapia com DHEA mesmo quando submetidos ao estresse repetitivo. Assim TNF-, IFN-, IL-2, NO e linfoproliferação mostraram concentrações mais elevadas quando comparadas aos animais não submetidos à terapia. A resposta TH-2 nos grupos sem suplementação com DHEA, IL-4 e IL-10 apresentaram valores reduzidos nos animais infectados e estressados submetidos à terapia com DHEA. A concentração de corticosterona mostrou-se elevada para animais estressados e infectados em relação aos animais submetidos a terapia com DHEA. A histopatologia apresentou redução no número de neurônios nas fases aguda e crônica para os animais estressados e infectados, os mesmos apresentaram desorganização tecidual cardíaca com aumento do número de ninhos de amastigotas e moderado processo inflamatório por células mononucleares. Estes resultados sugerem que o estresse repetitivo pode ser considerado como ii fator importante durante o desenvolvimento da doença de Chagas experimental, aumentando sua patogênese através de distúrbios do sistema imune do hospedeiro. / Chagas disease represents an important public health problem in Latin American, where the treatment is limited especially to chronic phase, besides the harmful side effects. Although controlling the parasite replication, the complete elimination of the etiologic agent still was not observed. Activation of the hypothalamuspituitaryadrenal axis plays a major role in the suppression of the immune system. We have investigated the effects of repetitive stress on Wistar rats infected with the Y strain of Trypanosoma cruzi during the acute and chronic phases of the experimental disease by the exposure to ether vapor for one minute twice a day. Repetitive stress resulted in an elevated number of circulating parasites and DHEA administration reduced significantly blood parasites during the acute phase. Several immunological parameters were evaluated. TH-1 response was more vigorous in animals submitted to DHEA therapy even those which underwent repetitive stress. So, TNF-, IFN-, IL-2, NO and lymphoproliferation displayed enhanced concentrations as compared to unsupplied animals. The TH-2 immune response in groups without DHEA supplementation, showed reduce values for IL-4 and IL-10 in groups infected and stressed submitted to DHEA therapy. Enhanced corticosterone concentration was a observed for infected and stressed animals. DHEA triggered reduced levels of corticosterone. The histopathology revealed that stressed animals showed a reduction in the number of neurons. Histological sections of heart smears from infected and stressed animals displayed deep tissue disorganization, increased parasite burdens and moderate diffused mononuclear inflammatory process. These results suggest that repetitive stress could be considered an iv important factor during development of experimental Chagas disease, enhancing pathogenesis through disturbance of the hosts immune system.