<p>The brain’s dopaminergic system is critical to adaptive behaviors, and is centrally implicated in various pathologies. For decades, research has aimed at better characterizing what drives the mesolimbic dopamine system and the resulting influence on brain physiology and behavior in both humans and animals. To date, the dominant modes of research have relied on extrinsic approaches: pharmacological manipulations, direct brain stimulation, or delivering behavioral incentives in laboratory tasks. A critical open question concerns whether individuals can modulate activation within this system volitionally. That is, can individuals use self-generated thoughts and imagery to invigorate this system on their own? This process can be referred to as “cognitive neurostimulation” -- a precise and non-invasive stimulation of neural systems via cognitive and behavioral strategies. And if not, can they be taught to do so? Recent technological advances make it feasible to present human participants with information about ongoing neural activations in a fast and spatially precise manner. Such feedback signals might enable individuals to eventually learn to control neural systems via fine-tuning of behavioral strategies. The studies described herein investigate whether individuals can learn to volitionally invigorate activation within the mesolimbic reward network. We demonstrate that under the right training context, individuals can successfully learn to generate cognitive states that elicit and sustain activation in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the source of dopamine production within the mesolimbic network. Although participants were explicitly trained to increase VTA activation, multiple mesolimbic regions exhibited increased connectivity during and after training. Together, these findings suggest new frameworks for aligning psychological and biological perspectives, and for understanding and harnessing the power of neuromodulatory systems.</p> / Dissertation

Addiction is thought to arise, in part, from a maladaptive learning process in which enduring memories of drug-related experiences are formed, resulting in persistent and uncontrollable drug-seeking behavior. However, it is well known that both acute and chronic alcohol (ethanol) exposures impair various types of learning and memory in both humans and animals. Consistent with these observations, both acute and chronic exposures to ethanol suppress synaptic plasticity, the major neural substrate for learning and memory, in multiple brain areas. Therefore, it remains unclear how powerful memories associated with alcohol experience are formed during the development of alcoholism. The mesolimbic dopaminergic system is critically involved in the learning of information related to rewards, including drugs of abuse. Both natural and drug rewards, such as ethanol, cause release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and other limbic structures, which is thought to drive learning by enhancing synaptic plasticity. Accumulating evidence indicates that plasticity of glutamatergic transmission onto dopamine neurons may play an important role in the development of addiction. Plasticity of NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated transmission may be of particular interest, as NMDAR activation is necessary for dopamine neuron burst firing and phasic dopamine release in projection areas that occurs in response to rewards or reward-predicting stimuli. NMDAR plasticity may, therefore, drive the learning of stimuli associated with rewards, including drugs of abuse. This dissertation finds that repeated in vivo ethanol exposure induces a metaplasticity of NMDAR-mediated transmission in mesolimbic dopamine neurons, expressed as an increased susceptibility to the induction of NMDAR LTP. Enhancement of NMDAR plasticity results from an increase in the potency of inositol 1,4,5- trisphosphate (IP3) in producing the facilitation of action potential-evoked Ca2+ signals critical for LTP induction. Interestingly, amphetamine exposure produces a similar enhancement of IP3R function, suggesting this neuroadaptation may be a common response to exposure to multiple drugs of abuse. Additionally, ethanol-treated mice display enhanced learning of cues associated with cocaine exposure. These findings suggest that metaplasticity of NMDAR LTP may contribute to the formation of powerful memories related to drug experiences and provide an important insight into the learning component of addiction. / text

published_or_final_version / Zoology / Master / Master of Philosophy

published_or_final_version / Zoology / Master / Master of Philosophy

The mechanisms that mediate the maintenance of chronic pain states are poorly understood, but elucidation of such could yield insight into how pain becomes chronic and how the process can potentially be reversed. This thesis investigated the role of ascending and descending spinal dorsal horn circuitry and interneurons in the plasticity that mediates a transition to pathological pain plasticity using hyperalgesic priming model. The results showed that, while dorsal horn neurokinin 1 receptor-positive neurons or descending serotonergic neurons mediated IL-6- and carrageenan-induced acute mechanical hypersensitivity, they were not required for PGE₂-induced mechanical hypersensitivity. In stark contrast, ablation of dopaminergic neurons did interrupt the IL-6- and carrageenan-induced mechanical hypersensitivity, but the subsequent PGE₂ injection failed to cause mechanical hypersensitivity - thereby reflecting that primed state plasticity is driven by differential mechanisms. In addition, the pharmacological antagonism of spinal dopamine D1/D5 receptors reversed priming and its agonism induced mechanical hypersensitivity exclusively in primed mice, which suggests dopaminergic control of pathological pain plasticity in a D1/D5-dependent manner. Moreover, in a primed state, changes to spinal dorsal horn GABA pharmacology were accompanied by upregulation of neuroligin 2 mRNA and protein expression. These findings 1) indicate a novel role for descending dopaminergic neurons in the maintenance of pathological pain plasticity, and 2) point to the inhibitory synaptic expression of neuroligin-2 as the spinal determinants of this type of pain plasticity.

Στο κεντρικό νευρικό σύστημα (ΚΝΣ), η ντοπαμίνη ελέγχει σημαντικές φυσιολογικές λειτουργίες όπως η έκκριση ορμονών, η ρύθμιση της κίνησης, γνωστικές πορείες και περίπλοκες συμπεριφορές που έχουν σχέση με το συναίσθημα και την ανταμοιβή. Η επαναπρόσληψη της ντοπαμίνης διαμέσου του μεταφορέα της νευρωνικής πλασματικής μεμβράνης (DAT) είναι σημαντική για τη διατήρηση της ομοιόστασης της στο ΚΝΣ. Πιστεύεται ότι ο DAT ελέγχει την ένταση και τη διάρκεια της ντοπαμινεργικής νευροδιαβίβασης. Ο DAT αποτελεί μοριακό στόχο θεραπευτικών ουσιών για την θεραπεία νοητικών δυσλειτουργιών όπως η σχιζοφρένεια και η κατάθλιψη. Επιπροσθέτως είναι στόχος εθιστικών ουσιών όπως η κοκαΐνη και η αμφεταμίνη. Οι ψυχοδιεγερτικές και οι θεραπευτικές ουσίες δεσμεύονται στον DAT, αλλάζουν την λειτουργία του και ως εκ τούτου επιτείνουν την ένταση και διάρκεια της ντοπαμινεργικής νευροδιαβίβασης. Η παρεγκεφαλίδα δέχεται μια κατεχολαμινεργική νεύρωση η οποία θεωρείται ότι είναι νοραδρενεργική. Εν τούτοις βιοχημικές, φαρμακολογικές και ανατομικές μελέτες υποδεικνύουν ότι επίσης δέχεται μια μικρή ντοπαμινεργική νεύρωση από την κοιλιακή περιοχή της καλύπτρας και την συμπαγή μοίρα της μέλαινας ουσίας. Πρόσφατες ανοσοϊστοχημικές μελέτες μας για τον DAT υπέδειξαν ότι νευρώνες της παρεγκεφαλίδας μπορεί να εκφράζουν τον μεταφορέα. Στην παρούσα μελέτη ο εντοπισμός του μεταφορέα της ντοπαμίνης (DAT) στην παρεγκεφαλίδα φυσιολογικών μυών, τόσο σε επίπεδο πρωτεΐνης όσο και σε επίπεδο mRNA έγινε με την μέθοδο Western Blot, IP και RT-PCR αντίστοιχα. Η πρωτεΐνη ανιχνεύθηκε στο κλάσμα των συναπτοσωμάτων, ενώ το mRNA σε ολικό εκχύλισμα παρεγκεφαλίδας. Τα αποτελέσματα έρχονται να επιβεβαιώσουν την ύπαρξη ντοπαμινεργικών κυττάρων στην παρεγκεφαλίδα. / In the Central Nervous System (CNS) the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) controls important functions including hormone secretion, locomotion, cognitive processes and complex behaviours that are associated with emotion and reward. Dopamine uptake through the neuronal plasma membrane DA transporter is essential for the maintenance of normal DA homeostasis in the brain. It is believed that DAT controls the intensity and the duration of dopamine neurotransmittion. DAT is the molecular target for therapeutic agents used in the treatment of mental disorders, such as schizophrenia and depression. In addition, DAT is the target for cocaine and amphetamine. Psychostimulants and therapeutic substances alter its transporter function and therefore prolong the intensity and duration of dopaminergic neurotransmittion.The cerebellum receives a catecholaminergic input that is generally accepted to be noradrenergic. However, biochemical, pharmacological and anatomical evidence indicate that the cerebellum also receives a small dopaminergic input from ventral tegmental area and substantia nigra pars compacta. Recent immunohistochemical studies have indicated that cerebellar neurons express the transporter. In the current study, cerebellar dopamine transporter protein and mRNA were studied using the methods of western blotting and RT-PCR. Our results confirm the existence of dopaminergic neurons in cerebellum.

No description available.

Excitatory glutamatergic inputs from limbic regions such as the hippocampus and the basolateral amygdala (BLA), and dopaminergic inputs from the ventral tegmental area converge in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). It has been proposed that interactions between these glutamatergic and dopaminergic pathways play an important role in adaptive behaviors. The present thesis employed a multidisciplinary approach to study these interactions, with a specific emphasis on the importance of mesoaccumbens dopamine (DA) transmission, in order to obtain a better understanding of the neural mechanisms by which the NAc transforms signals from the temporal lobes into behavior. The experiments of Chapter 2 utilized extracellular single-unit recordings of individual NAc neurons in combination with electrochemical measures of DA efflux in the NAc. Recordings from NAc neurons which received input from the hippocampus but not the BLA revealed that increased efflux of mesoaccumbens DA, evoked by tetanic stimulation of the fimbria, potentiated hippocampal-evoked neural activity in these cells. These effects were mediated by both DA and NMDA receptors. Similar recordings from neurons which received converging input from both the hippocampus and the BLA revealed tetanic stimulation of the fimbria again potentiated hippocampal evoked spiking activity, while concurrently suppressing BLA-evoked spiking activity in the same neurons. The suppression of BLA-evoked spiking activity was activity-dependent, and was mediated by both D, and adenosine A, receptors. Chapter 3 showed that random foraging on a radial-arm maze, which is dependent on a neural circuit linking the hippocampus to the NAc, was correlated with an increase in mesoaccumbens DA extracellular levels, as measured with microdialysis. In Chapter 4, pharmacological blockade of DA or NMDA receptors in the NAc, or selective disruption of dopaminergic modulation of ventral subicular inputs to the NAc (using an asymmetrical infusion procedure) significantly disrupted random foraging. These effects were mediated by the Dl receptor. In Chapter 5, the present data are integrated with previous research to formulate a model of ventral striatal function. It is proposed that the NAc mediates behavior through distinct patterns of activity and inactivity driven by excitatory limbic input projecting to different groups of neural ensembles. Mesoaccumbens DA transmission plays an essential role in regulating the synchrony ensemble activity, augmenting activity in one ensemble while suppressing activity in another. It is argued that the modulatory effects of DA appears to be essential when an organism must switch from one form of adaptive behavior to another in response to a constantly changing environment.

Narcolepsy is a disabling sleep disorder that is characterized by persistent sleepiness, and cataplexy – an involuntary loss of waking muscle tone. Cataplexy and narcolepsy are caused by the loss of hypocretin containing neurons in the hypothalamus. However, it is hypothesized that dopamine is also involved in sleep and motor control and plays a role in cataplexy. This study investigated how manipulating dopamine affected sleep and cataplexy in narcoleptic mice devoid of hypocretin. We used d-amphetamine to increase endogenous dopamine levels and quinpirole (D2 agonist) to agonize D2 receptor sites. Amphetamine promoted wakefulness while decreasing sleep in wild-type mice, but was less effective in narcoleptic mice. Amphetamine also reduced cataplexy as well as sleep attacks (an indicator of sleepiness) in narcoleptic mice. Quinpirole had no effect on sleep or wakefulness; however, it potently increased cataplexy without affecting sleep attacks in narcoleptic mice.

Dopamine (DA) drives incentive learning: learning which is elicited through rewarding stimuli. Irregularities in DA activity are associated with various psychological disorders. Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β), a molecule downstream of DA receptors, has been implicated in mediating dopaminergic behaviour, and unbalanced DA activity is associated with concomitant irregularities in GSK3β signaling. Inhibition of this molecule has been noted to attenuate behavioural sensitization, and decrease psychotomimetic behaviour in animals. Few studies have assessed the role of GSK3β in the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm, which evaluates the rewarding properties of substances and has been used to model psychosis. CPP can be examined through either acquisition or expression paradigms, which look at the active learning process vs. the recall of learned information respectively. We tested the hypothesis that selective inhibition of GSK3β with SB 216763 will differentially and dose-dependently affect the acquisition and expression of amphetamine (AMPH) CPP, as well as attenuate AMPH locomotor activity in acquisition. All drugs and vehicles were administered via intra-cranial microinfusions into the nucleus accumbens. AMPH was administered at a dose of 20.0 μg/0.5 μl/side. SB 216763 was tested at four doses (0.03, 0.30, 3.00, & 5.00 μg/0.5 μl/side) in both acquisition and expression. We found administering SB 216763 at all doses to attenuate AMPH CPP and locomotor activity in acquisition. At doses 0.30, 3.00, & 5.00 μg/0.5 μl/side, SB 216763 also blocked AMPH CPP at expression. These results lend support to GSK3β’s involvement in incentive learning and DA-mediated behaviours, and suggest its inhibition may differentially affect the acquisition and expression of AMPH CPP. / Thesis (Master, Psychology) -- Queen's University, 2014-01-03 15:41:20.989