Many innovations have been attempted to shorten drying time or improve dehydration techniques for foods. Despite the recent advances in science and technology the bulk of dried fruit production throughout the world, over 1 1/2 billion tons (dry basis), is prepared by the energy of the sun (Copley and Van Arsdel, 1964), However, other techniques and processes for food dehydration and preservation are occupying more prominent positions in the overall production of dehydrated foods, particularly in the more advanced countries. Economics notwithstanding, it is readily apparent that dehydration as compared to sun-drying offers at least two main advantages. It is more sanitary and it is independent of inclement weather and thus of geographies. These two reasons arc perhaps among the chief ones for the increasing technical developments in dehydration by procedures such as cabinet drying (Beavens, 1944), vacuum drying (Schroeder and Schwarz, 1949), freeze drying (Lawler, 1963) and foam-mat drying (Morgan and Ginnette, 1960). They are perhaps also the reason for continuing research on new and improved dehydration processes which may be adaptable to certain types of products. In this continuing search, electromagnetic waves, which are similar to the more familiar light or radiowaves but differ in frequency and wavelength, have received little attention.

The importance of hypovolemia in dehydrational death was assessed in two anuran species. Xenopus laeyis, a species which experiences a significant reduction in circulating plasma volume with dehydration, was used to evaluate the role of sympathetic reflex compensation in hypovolemia. Adrenergic blockade with propranolol or phenoxybenzamine produced no significant reduction in dehydration tolerance in this species, although β-blockade with propranolol appeared to have a minor effect. The role of hypovolemic shock in the terminal circulatory collapse that precedes death in dehydrating anurans was investigated in the toad, Bufo marinus. The activity of lysosomal proteinases (cathepsins) was used as an indicator of the shock state. An assay was developed for the determination of cathepsin activity in toad plasma and was used to demonstrate the presence of proteinases similar in pH dependence to mammalian cathepsins Bl and D. Plasma cathepsin D-type activity increased with dehydration in toads but was not significantly different from the activity in controls or in toads subjected to splanchnic artery occlusion. Toads appear to maintain plasma volume to 20% water loss at the expense of other extracellular fluids. These results do not support the hypothesis that hypovolemia is a direct cause of dehydrational death in anurans.

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Adequate hydration is critical for optimal performance and health. Fluid requirements of collegiate athletes are unique due to training and competition, travel, school schedules, and stressors common in college environments. Inattention to these factors may contribute to suboptimal hydration. Importantly, loss of 1-2% of body weight by dehydration can impair physical and cognitive performance. As such, development of valid and reliable tools to assess hydration status in collegiate athletes is needed. The purpose of this study was to assess the validity of urine color (UC) as a measure of hydration status in collegiate athletes. A secondary purpose was to evaluate the utility of indexes of hydration status for UC and urine specific gravity (USG) established by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the National Athletic Trainers' Association (NATA). To address this, 62 NCAA Division I collegiate athletes provided a urine sample ≤30 minutes of exercise for UC self-assessment (UCsub) and experimenter-assessment (UCres) using the UC chart developed by Armstrong et al. (1994) and for USG measurement via refractometry (1). Habitual dietary intake was assessed by 24-hr recalls. There was a significant positive correlation between USG and both UCsub (r=0.679, p<0.001) and UCres (r=0.772, p<0.001). In addition, the USG based on UC was inconsistent with hydration/dehydration categories established by ACSM and NATA. These findings suggest that UC, even when self-assessed by the athlete, is a valid method for assessing hydration status in NCAA division I college athletes. However, some modification of ACSM and NATA hydration categories may be warranted. 1. Armstrong LE, Maresh CM, Castellani JW, et al. Urinary indices of hydration status. Int J Sport Nutr. 1994;4(3):265-279. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7987361. Accessed October 26, 2016. / Master of Science

The fate of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. during osmotic dehydration of apples was determined at different processing temperatures, times and calcium chloride (CaCl2) concentrations. Apple slices were inoculated to achieve an 8 log CFU/ apple slice concentration of a five strain mixture of E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella spp. and were soaked in sucrose solutions (60% w/w). In the first study, apple slices were subjected to osmotic dehydration at three different temperatures: 20°C, 45°C and 60°C. In a second study, CaCl₂ was added in the sucrose solution at concentrations of 2%, 4% and 8% to determine its efficacy as an antimicrobial agent. The storage effect of osmotic dehydrated apples on pathogen survival was also tested for seven days at 4°C. Samples were withdrawn at appropriate time intervals, diluted with 0.1% peptone water and surface plated onto recovery media. Recovery of E. coli O157:H7 was compared on Tryptic Soy Agar + 50 ppm nalidixic acid (TSAN) and MacConkey Sorbitol agar (MCS). Recovery of Salmonella was compared on TSAN and XLD agar. There was lower microbial reduction at the lower temperatures tested with approximately 1.0 and 3.0 log CFU/apple slice reduction at 20°C and 45°C, respectively. The population reduction of cells was highest at 60°C, with an approximate five log reduction for both microorganisms (P<0.001). CaCl₂ used as an additive in the osmotic solution, was associated with slightly higher reduction of both E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp. Greater than a 5 log reduction was observed when the combination of CaCl₂ (8%) and 60°C processing temperature was used. During refrigerated storage E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella decreased by approximately 4.5 log CFU/apple slice, but were still recoverable via direct plating at Day seven. The results of this study show that the survival of E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella in osmotically dehydrated fruit is influenced by the osmotic processing method used and the level of additive (i.e., CaCl₂) utilized. Parameters associated with decreased survival of pathogens, and therefore, improve product safety, include increasing temperature and time of processing and increasing concentration of CaCl₂. However, E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella in artificially contaminated apple slices, survived osmotic dehydration processing and subsequent storage under processing and storage parameters of this study. Therefore, processors who produce osmotically dehydrated fruit must consider the potential food safety impact of the osmotic dehydration processes they choose. / Master of Science

Yes / Introduction: Investigate the effectiveness of short-term heat acclimation (STHA), over 5-days (permissive dehydration), on an intermittent sprint exercise protocol (HST) with females. Controlling for menstrual cycle phase. Materials and Methods: Ten, moderately trained, females (Mean [SD]; age 22.6 [2.7] y; stature 165.3 [6.2] cm; body mass 61.5 [8.7] kg; VO˙ 2 peak 43.9 [8.6] mL·kg−1 ·min−1 ) participated. The HST (31.0◦C; 50%RH) was 9 × 5 min (45-min) of intermittent exercise, based on exercise intensities of female soccer players, using a motorized treadmill and Wattbike. Participants completed HST1 vs. HST2 as a control (C) trial. Followed by 90 min, STHA (no fluid intake), for five consecutive days in 39.5◦C; 60%RH, using controlled-hyperthermia (∼rectal temperature [Tre] 38.5◦C). The HST3 occurred within 1 week after STHA. The HST2 vs HST3 trials were in the luteal phase, using self-reported menstrual questionnaire and plasma 17β-estradiol. Results: Pre (HST2) vs post (HST3) STHA there was a reduction at 45-min in Tre by 0.20◦C (95%CI −0.30 to −0.10◦C; d = 0.77); Tsk (−0.50; −0.90 to −0.10◦C; d = 0.80); and Tb (−0.25; −0.35 to −0.15◦C; d = 0.92). Cardiac frequency reduced at 45-min (−8; −16 to −1 b·min−1 ; d = 1.11) and %PV increased (7.0; −0.4 to 14.5%: d = 1.27). Mean power output increased across all nine maximal sprints by 56W (−26 to 139W; d = 0.69; n = 9). There was limited difference (P > 0.05) for these measures in HST1 vs HST2 C trial. Discussion: Short-term heat acclimation (5-days) using controlled-hyperthermia, leads to physiological adaptation during intermittent exercise in the heat, in moderately trained females when controlling for menstrual cycle phase.