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A total number of 849 tests were conducted to investigate the transient response of liquid injectors with various geometries including different taper angles, injection angles and orifice lengths. High-speed videos were analyzed to characterize refill times and back-flow distances of nine different injector geometries subjected to a ethylene-oxygen detonation wave. Water was used as the working fluid and experiments were performed at two different vessel pressure settings (60 and 100 psia). Although a minimal difference was found between plain and angled injectors due to having constant orifice diameter geometry, introduction of taper angle resulted in more agile injectors with less sensitivity to ambient and feed pressures. Several attempts were made to normalize refill times and obtain a general trend for transient response of liquid injectors.

Cette Thèse de Doctorat est dédiée à la simulation numérique des détonations, et plus particulièrement aux détonations confinées par un gaz inerte. Cette configuration correspond en partie à l’écoulement rencontré au sein des moteurs à détonations rotatives, dans lesquels le combustible est confiné par les gaz brûlés issus du cycle précédent. Le code de calcul employé s’appuie sur des schémas numériques d’ordre élevé adaptés à la capture des discontinuités (interpolation MP d’ordre 9, solveur HLLC et intégration temporelle d’ordre3). Une attention particulière a été portée à la caractérisation de l’écoulement au travers de son évolution moyenne dans le repère de la détonation. Les simulations ont été réalisées pour différentes valeurs de l’énergie d’activation, qui traduit la sensibilité du milieu réactif,pour des couches réactives de dimensions variées et enfin pour des confinements inertes à différentes températures. La base de données résultante démontre l’existence de deux comportements distincts suivant l’énergie d’activation du milieu réactif. Le déficit de la célérité de la détonation peut être globalement appréhendé comme fonction du ratio de l’épaisseur hydrodynamique par le rayon de courbure sur l’axe. Enfin, la présence d’une couche inerte à haute température modifie de façon importante la topologie de la détonation et en étend les limites de propagation. / This dissertation is devoted to the numerical study of detonation waves, and more specifically to the dynamics of detonations bounded by an inert gaseous layer. This configuration is similar to the flow field within the rotating detonation engines, in which the fuel is confined by the burned gases produced during the previous combustion cycle. The computational solver is based on high-order schemes designed for capturing discontinuities (9thorder MP interpolation, HLLC solver and 3rd order temporal integration). The detonation was investigated by calculating the averaged profile in the shock frame of reference. The simulations were performed for various values of the activation energy, which control the mixture sensitivity, for different heights of the reactive layer and for different temperature of the inert medium. The resulting database shows that according to the activation energy, two different behaviors can be observed. The presence of a high-temperature inert layer strongly affects the detonation structure and extends the propagation limits. The detonation deficit can be globally expressed as a function of the ratio of the hydrodynamic thickness to the radius of curvature on the axis.

Notre étude porte sur la caractérisation expérimentale et numérique de la dynamique des ondes de détonation dans des prémélanges gazeux non-uniformément distribués dont les gradients de composition sont orientés selon la direction de propagation de la détonation. Elle vise à améliorer la compréhension des phénomènes complexes présents dans une chambre de combustion de moteur à détonations pulsées (PDE) ou rotatives (RDE) et dans des situations de fuites accidentelles de combustibles. Nous rappelons d’abord le contexte de notre étude, la phénoménologie de la détonation dans les gaz et les travaux antérieurs sur la propagation de la détonation dans des compositions non-uniformes. Nous décrivons ensuite le banc expérimental que nous avons conçu pour satisfaire à la contrainte de génération contrôlée de gradients de composition dans une chambre d’étude de section carrée 50⇥50 mm2 et de longueur 665 mm, et les diagnostics que nous avons mis en œuvre : sondes à oxygène, capteurs de pression dynamique, enregistrements sur plaques recouvertes d’un dépôt de carbone, strioscopie et spectroscopie par chimiluminescence ultra-rapides. Nous présentons alors les résultats de nos expériences dans des compositions de propane ou d’éthane et d’oxygène à la pression et à la température initiales 200 mbar et 290 K. Nous avons considéré des distributions monotones, de richesse décroissante, et des distributions non-monotones, de richesse décroissante puis croissante. Dans les distributions monotones, nous avons identifié deux types d’extinction de la détonation, l’un brusque, par découplage choc-flamme, pour des gradients suffisamment forts, l’autre progressif, par transition vers des modes marginaux de propagation, pour des gradients plus faibles. Nous avons proposé et validé des critères d’existence de la détonation fondés sur les échelles caractéristiques du problème. Nous avons démontré, pour ces distributions, la capacité de simulations numériques avec cinétique chimique détaillée à représenter nos expériences, dans le cadre d’une collaboration avec l’Université Keio. Dans les distributions non-monotones, nous avons identifié des comportements super-critique, critique et sous-critique, selon que la détonation est transmise ou non de la zone où la richesse diminue vers celle où elle augmente. Nous avons en particulier identifié les conditions de réamorçage d’une détonation éteinte dans la zone de richesse décroissante. Notre étude souligne l’intérêt de travaux futurs sur des non-uniformités de compositions initiales constitués de gaz brûlés et de gaz frais et donc, également, des non-uniformités de température initiale. Elle souligne aussi la nécessité de diagnostics optiques et d’outils numériques performants, et de schémas détaillés de cinétique chimique adaptés aux hautes pressions et températures caractérisant la dynamique des détonations. / Our study is an experimental and numerical work on the dynamical behaviours of detonation waves in non-uniformly distributed premixed gases with composition gradients parallel to the direction of the detonation propagation. The study aims at improving the understanding of the complex phenomena involved in the combustion chambers of pulsed or rotating detonation engine (PDE, RDE) and after accidental leaks of fuels. We first remind the context of our study, the phenomenology of gaseous detonation and the previous works on detonation propagation in non-uniform compositions. We then describe the experimental set-up that we have designed in order to meet the constraint of a controlled generation of composition gradients in a 50⇥50 mm2 square-section, 665-mm length test chamber, and the diagnoses that we have implemented : oxygen probes, fast pressure transducers, carbon-sooted plates and ultrafast Schlieren and chemiluminescence spectroscopy. Next, we present the results of our experiments in mixtures of propane or ethane and oxygen with initial pressure and temperature 200 mbar and 290 K, respectively. We have considered monotonic distributions, with decreasing equivalence ratio, and non- monotonic distributions, with decreasing then increasing equivalence ratio. In the monotonic distributions, we have identified two types of detonation quenching, one sudden, with a shock-flame decoupling, for the steeper gradients, the other progressive, with a transition through marginal modes of detonation propagation, for the weaker gradients. We have proposed and validated criteria for detonation, based on the characteristic scales of the problem. We have demonstrated, for these monotonic distributions, the ability of numerical simulations with detailed schemes of chemical kinetics to represent our experimental observations, through a collaboration with Keio University. In the non-monotonic distributions, we have identified super-critical, critical and sub-critical behaviours, depending on whether the detonation is transmitted or not from the domain where the equivalence ratio decreases to that where it increases. In particular, we have identified the re-initiation conditions for a detonation that was quenched in the domain of decreasing equivalence ratio. Our study stresses the interest for future works to consider non-uniform distributions of mixtures comprising burnt gases and fresh reactants, and, consequently, non-uniform distributions of temperature. It also stresses the need for performing optical diagnoses and numerical capacities and for detailed schemes of chemical kinetics adapted to the high pressures and temperatures characterizing detonation dynamics.

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited. / An efficient nozzle design is critical for enhancing the benefits of Pulse Detonation Engines (PDEs) and enabling their use as future propulsion or power generation systems. Due to the inherent variation in chamber pressure for Pulse Detonation Combustors, it has been difficult to design a nozzle, which has the capability to provide an appropriate exit-to-throat area ratio suited for both the detonation blow-down event and refresh pressures associated with the cyclic operation of a PDE. A two-dimensional PDE exit nozzle was designed, modeled, and constructed in an attempt to increase the overall efficiency of converting thermal energy to kinetic energy by providing a fluidic method to dynamically vary the effective nozzle area ratio. A fluidic nozzle configuration was evaluated, which had the ability to inject a small amount of air into the diverging section of the nozzle in order to dynamically create a more desirable exit-to-throat area ratio. Experimental testing was conducted on various injection flow rates, and a shadowgraph system was used to observe the fluid flow characteristics within the nozzle. Computer simulations were used to analyze the fluid flow properties within the nozzle. A comparison of the computer simulations and the experimental results was performed and demonstrated good agreement. / Lieutenant, United States Navy

<p>The interaction and behavior of detonation waves propagating in a linear detonation combustor (LDC) were studied to identify the coupled thermoacoustic-chemical phenomenon responsible for self-generated and self-sustained detonation waves. The LDC was operated with natural gas and gaseous oxygen over a wide range of equivalence ratios and optically observed with OH*-chemiluminescence, schlieren, and broadband imaging in addition to high-frequency pressure transducers and photomultiplier tubes. Counter-propagating, self-sustained detonation waves were observed in the semi-bounded combustor to accelerate and amplify consistently from the closed-boundary to the open-boundary. The incident waves then reflect off of the open-boundary and transition into weaker waves that propagate acoustically relative to the burned products before being reflected by the closed-boundary and accelerating to dominancy once again. The combustor was then modified to have symmetric boundary conditions with both ends closed. For closed cases, the detonation waves experienced similar acceleration and amplification processes. The incident waves accelerate until they are reflected by a closed boundary into a flow field for which the fuel-injectors have yet to recover. For this reason, the reflected waves propagate through burned products until they encounter fresh reactants and accelerate again. The closed boundary conditions also caused the direction of dominance to periodically alternate. This study indicates that the local mixing field between open and closed boundary conditions affects the strength and speed of the reflected wave and demonstrates the impact of combustor geometry on coupled thermoacoustic-chemical phenomenon in RDEs.</p>

<p>      Rotating detonation combustion has been investigated since the 1960s and has gained much attention in the past decade due to its promise of pressure gain. In theory, the pressure gain can provide higher power output at inlet total temperatures similar to those of Brayton cycle engines, leading to increased efficiency and decreased engine size. However, complexities presented by detonative combustion have prevented it from becoming widely adopted, especially for turbomachinery applications. A rotating detonation combustor with a transonic or supersonic exhaust imposes rapid fluctuations in pressure, temperature, and flow angle at the inlet of the turbine. To account for these fluctuations, ad hoc turbine designs have been proposed over the last few years, including supersonic bladed and bladeless variants. Computational fluid dynamics simulations have shown that it is possible to extract a meaningful amount of work from these turbines, but dedicated experimental test rigs are needed to validate these designs at relevant conditions in long-duration tests.</p> <p>     Toward this goal, this thesis focuses on three research elements. The first element is the design of a cooled rotating detonation combustor with a downstream turbine that can operate for long durations. The cooled combustor is accomplished in a two-part procedure: (1) repurposing Purdue University’s Turbine-integrated High-pressure Optical Rotating detonation engine (THOR) and (2) designing a lightweight, gaseous film-cooled combustor shroud with ample configurations for pressure, temperature, and optical measurements.</p> <p>     The second element is the design of three supersonic turbines for use in RDEs: an axial-flow bladed turbine, an axial-flow bladeless turbine, and an axial-inflow/radial-outflow bladed turbine. Each turbine is designed for cold flow testing, and provisions for mounting the axial-flow bladed turbine downstream of the cooled combustor are proposed. Supplemental turbine hardware is also designed to provide precise and repeatable conditions for the turbine tests.</p> <p>     The third element is the construction of an energy absorption dynamometer to measure the power output of the different supersonic turbines. Four types of dynamometers are explored, including hydraulic brakes, electromagnetic brakes, electric generator brakes, and airbrakes. Although the literature declares the electromagnetic brake to be more accurate, the most cost-effective solution is to utilize the compressor side of a donated turbocharger. Combining all research elements yields a new test rig for this new class of supersonic turbines.</p>

<p>In rotating detonation engines the turbine inlet conditions may be transonic with unprecedented unsteady fluctuations, very different from those in conventional high-pressure turbines. To ensure an acceptable engine performance, the turbine passages must be unchoked at subsonic and started at supersonic conditions. Additionally, to maximize the aerodynamic performance potential, ad-hoc designs are required, suited for the oscillations in Mach number and flow angle. This manuscript focuses on designing and characterizing diffusive turbine vanes that can operate downstream of a transonic rotating detonation combustor.  </p> <p><br></p> <p>First, the phenomenon of unstarting is presented, concentrating on the effect of pressure loss on the accurate prediction of the starting limit. Afterward, a multi-objective optimization with steady Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes simulations, including the endwall and 3D vane design, is performed. The results are discussed, highlighting the impact of the throat-to-inlet area ratio on the pressure loss and the geometric features of the top-performing designs. Compared to previous  research on stator passages with contoured endwalls, considerable reductions in pressure loss and stator-induced rotor forcing are obtained, with an extended operating range and preserving high turning.  </p> <p><br></p> <p>Subsequently, the influence of the inlet boundary layer thickness on the vane performance is evaluated, inducing remarkable increases in pressure loss and downstream pressure distortion. Employing an optimization with a thicker inlet boundary layer, specific endwall design recommendations are found, providing a notable improvement in both objective functions. The impact of the geometry variations on flow detachment is assessed as well.</p> <p><br></p> <p>Finally, the impact of the inlet flow angle on the vane design is studied through a multi-point, multi-objective optimization with different inlet angles. The effect of incidence on the flow field and vane performance is evaluated first. Then, by comparing the optimized geometries with those optimized for axial inflows, several design guidelines are identified </p>