Cette thèse présente mon travail de recherche accompli depuis 2010 pour développer les détecteurs Micromegas du spectromètre CLAS12 qui sera installé dans le hall B du laboratoire Jefferson aux Etats-Unis. Les Micromegas sont des détecteurs gazeux robustes, rapides et bon marché. Ils doivent cependant être adaptés à l'environnement spécifique de CLAS12 car les défis sont nombreux : présence d'un champ magnétique fort, éloignement de l'électronique, fonctionnement avec un taux de hadrons élevé, nécessité de courber les détecteurs, espace disponible restreint. Ma thèse a commencé par des tests de détecteurs en faisceau au CERN qui ont permis d'estimer que le taux de décharges dans les Micromegas de CLAS12 serait de quelques Hertz. Une part importante de ce document est ainsi consacrée à l'étude de plusieurs méthodes innovantes dont l'objectif est de minimiser le temps mort dû aux décharges. J'ai donc mené des tests intensifs portant sur l'optimisation du filtre haute tension de la microgrille, l'introduction d'une feuille de GEM dans un Micromegas ou encore l'utilisation de Micromegas dits résistifs. Ces derniers donnant d'excellents résultats, des prototypes à l'échelle 1, dont l'un fabriqué par un industriel, ont été testés. La mécanique et le point de fonctionnement (gaz, tensions, géométrie...) des détecteurs ont ensuite été validés par des tests en laboratoire. Toutefois, afin de s'assurer un meilleur rapport signal sur bruit, des optimisations de la microgrille du détecteur ont été menées. Le CEA Saclay étant également responsable du développement de l'électronique des Micromegas pour CLAS12, j'ai comparé ses performances avec une autre électronique, vérifier sa résolution temporelle et déterminer le rapport signal sur bruit lorsque des limandes de 2 m connectent le détecteur à l'électronique. Les progrès réalisés dans le cadre de CLAS12 ont par ailleurs initié d'autres projets. J'ai ainsi effectué des simulations basées sur des pseudo-données pour valider la faisabilité d'une expérience portant sur les mésons exotiques pour laquelle nous avons proposé un trajectographe composé de Micromegas. / This thesis presents my work performed since 2010 to develop Micromegas detectors for the CLAS12 spectrometer that will be installed in the Hall B of Jefferson Laboratory (USA). The Micromegas are robust, fast and cheap gaseous detectors. Nevertheless, they must be adapted to the specific CLAS12 environment as there are many challenges to face : presence of a strong magnetic field, off-detector frontend electronics, high hadrons rate, necessity to curve the detectors, few space available. My PhD started by beam tests at CERN that allowed to evaluate the spark rate in CLAS12 Micromegas at a few Hertz. An important part of this document is therefore devoted to the study of several innovative methods to minimize the dead time induced by sparks. Thus, I have performed intensive tests on the optimization of the micromesh high voltage filter, with on Micromegas equipped with a GEM foild or on resistive Micromegas. The latter giving excellent results, full scale prototypes, one of which built by a company, have been tested. The mechanics and the working point (gas, voltages, geometry...) of the detectors have then be validated by laboratory tests. However, to ensure a better signal over noise ratio, the micromesh has been optimized. The CEA Saclay being also responsible for the development of the electronics for CLAS12 Micromegas, I have compared its performance with another electronics, verify its time resolution and determine the signal over noise ratio when 2 m long cables are connecting the electronics to the detector. The progress realized in the context of CLAS12 have furthermore triggered other projects. So, I have carried out simulations based on pseudo-data to validate the feasibility of a meson spectroscopy experiment for which we have proposed a Micromegas based tracker.

Simulations are powerful and important tools for gaining insight into powder processes. Ultimately, simulations have the potential to replace experiments. Thus, accurate models and insight into the essential factors for descriptions of powder behaviour are required. In this thesis, discrete element method (DEM) simulations of granule flow and compression were evaluated to deduce parameters and potential models essential for the experimental and numerical correspondence. In addition, the evolution in tablet microstructure during compression was studied using mercury porosimetry. Granule flow was measured using angle of repose, discharge rate, and shear. The granular flow depended primarily on particle shape and surface texture due to the mutual influence of these two parameters on the inter-particle forces. Rolling friction stabilised both the heap formation and promoted shear in the elastic quasi-static flow regime. Thus, rolling friction was established to be an essential simulation parameter for the correspondence to experiments. Current compression models often neglect the elastic compact deformation during particle loading. In this thesis, two fundamentally different models were evaluated with focus of including the elastic deformation. The first model comprised a maximal particle overlap, where elastic deformation commences. The second model accounted for the contact dependence and impingement at high relative densities. This model was based on a truncated-sphere followed by a Voronoi extension. The validity of the models was demonstrated by the elastic qualitative correspondence to experimental compressions for ductile materials. In tablets, the void (inter-granular pore) diameter was dependent on the degree of compression. Thus, the degree of compression provides an indication of the tablet microstructure. The microstructure was subsequently observed to be related to the tablet tensile strength as inferred from a percolation threshold required for formation of coherent tablets. In summary, this thesis has shed light onto the potential of simulating flow and compression of granulated pharmaceutical powders using DEM. Continuous work in the area are required to further improve the models to increase the experimental and numerical correspondence.

<p>This dissertation examines the impact of active shooters upon patrons attending large outdoor events. There has been a spike in shooters targeting densely populated spaces in recent years, to include open-air venues. The 2019 Gilroy Garlic Festival was selected for modeling replication using AnyLogic software to test various experiments designed to reduce casualties in the event of an active shooter situation. Through achievement of validation to produce identical outcomes of the real-world Gilroy Garlic Festival shooting, the researcher established a reliable foundational model for experimental purposes. This active shooter research project identifies the need for rapid response efforts to neutralize the shooter(s) as quickly as possible to minimize casualties. Key findings include the importance of armed officers patrolling event grounds to reduce response time, the need for adequate exits during emergency evacuations, incorporation of modern technology to identify the shooter’s location, and applicability of a 1:548 police to patron ratio.</p>