The mushroom body (MB) is the site of odor association learning in Drosophila.  In the canonical model, there are two types of reinforcing dopamine neurons (DANs): one set for rewarding unconditioned stimuli (US), and one responding to aversive US.  When DANs are activated together with an odor (the conditioned stimulus, or CS), plasticity is induced in the downstream output neurons (MBONs).  We have identified a DAN (V1) that surprisingly responds preferentially to odors, and responds weakly or not at all to various classical US.  In order to explore the relationship between V1 odor responses and the established roles of the MB, I characterized the responses of DAN V1, and probed its relationship to odor-driven behavior, associative conditioning, and activity in other MB compartments. These data show that V1 receives recurrent input from identified MBONs, contributes to the activity of an MBON that enhances alerting behavior, and that its odor responses are modulated by conditioning. We therefore present the study of the alpha2 compartment, which V1 innervates, as the dissection of an atypical compartment of the MB, one that acts as a hub by which various information from other compartments and brain areas is integrated in order to alter a behavioral response to odor. This work furthers our understanding of the MB not simply as an engine of classical learning, but as a system of diverse interconnected modules that allow coordinated fine control of behavior.

The Transient Receptor Potential, Melastatin-like 7 (TRPM7) protein is composed of a long amino terminus, 6 trans-membrane domains, and a carboxy terminal α-kinase domain; TRPM7 tetramers form non-selective cation channels with unusual permeability to Mg2+. TRPM7 is thought to be expressed in all cell types, and studies conducted primarily on cultured cells have implicated TRPM7 in cellular functions that include cell adhesion, synaptic vesicle release, kidney cation balance, differentiation, survival, and cellular magnesium homeostasis. The full extent of its physiological functions in vivo remains elusive because mouse TRPM7 homozygous null mutants die at embryonic stages. By contrast, zebrafish homozygous for hypomorphic alleles of trpm7 survive for two weeks post fertilization, making it possible to study the physiological consequences of Trpm7 deficiency in a living organism. My work primarily utilizes homozygous animals carrying the trpm7b508 allele, which we suspect encodes a non-functional protein for three reasons. This protein variant is predicted to lack a kinase domain, patch clamp studies fail to detect current, and morpholino knockdown of Trpm7 yields a similar phenotype. Herein, we explore the mechanisms behind each of three phenotypes in trpm7b508 homozygous embryos, i.e., trpm7 mutants. First, we find that cell death of embryonic melanophores in trpm7 mutants is not by apoptosis, and it is dependent upon melanin synthesis and the ion channel Trpm2. Second, we show that paralysis of trpm7 mutants is rescued by surgical opening of the circulatory system to surrounding media, implying that paralysis results from an organismal ion imbalance. Third, we report a variety of findings supporting the model that abnormally low levels of spontaneous swimming in larval trpm7 mutants results from reduced dopamine signaling. We find that specific populations of catecholaminergic neurons are reduced in mutants relative to their unaffected siblings, and that mutants are sensitized to the neurotoxic effects of 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium iodide (MPP+). Together, these results suggest that Trpm7 has a role in ameliorating the toxic effects of reactive oxygen species in certain populations of melanophores and neurons. These findings advance understanding of the function of TRPM7 during embryonic development, and may have relevance to the gene-environment interaction behind certain neurodegenerative conditions.

Abstract not available

Medications that treat diseases such as Parkinson???s disease work by regulating dopamine transmission at synapses. Surprisingly, little is known about the mechanisms regulating dopamine release at synapses. In this thesis, we study mechanisms that regulate vesicle recycling in axons and dendrites of dopamine neurons. Key questions we addressed were: (1) Are vesicles in axons and dendrites associated with the same regulatory proteins, and thus by implication the same regulatory mechanisms, as in excitatory neurons; (2) Do vesicles undergo recycling, and (3) if so, are they characterised by a distinct pool size and rate of recycling. To study this, we cultured dopamine neurons and used immunocytochemistry to detect vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) and identify axons, dendrites and synaptic proteins, combined with labelling of recycling vesicles using FM 1-43. Vesicles in axons, but not in dendrites, were associated with presynaptic proteins such as Synaptophysin and Bassoon. We identified two kinds of presynaptic sites in axons: ???synaptic??? (located close to soma and dendrites??? and ???orphan???. The recycling vesicle pool size was smaller at orphan sites than at synaptic sites, and the initial rate of vesicle pool release was also lower at orphan sites. Both synaptic and orphan sites exhibited lower rates of vesicle pool release compared to hippocampal synapses, suggesting functional differences in presynaptic physiology between dopamine neurons and hippocampal neurons. In somatodendritic regions, VMAT2 was localised to the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, endosome, and large dense-core vesicles, suggesting that these vesicles might function as a part of the regulated secretory pathway in mediating dopamine release. None of the synaptic vesicle proteins we studied were detected in these regions, although some preliminary evidence of vesicle turnover was detected using FM 1-43 labelling. This thesis provides a detailed analysis of neurotransmitter release mechanisms in dopamine neurons. Our data suggests that presynaptic release of dopamine is mediated by mechanisms similar to those observed in excitatory neurons. In somatodendritic regions, our data suggests that VMAT2 is localised to organelles in secretory pathways, and that distinct mechanisms of release might be present at somatodendritic sites to those present in presynaptic sites. This thesis provides novel methods for analysing vesicle recycling in dopamine neurons, which provides the basis for further studies examining presynaptic function of dopamine neurons in normal brain function, disease, and therapeutic approaches.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2006. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vi, 86 p. : ill. (some col.). Vita. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 75-85).

Not available / text

Οι θυρεοειδικές ορμόνες (Τ3 και Τ4) είναι απαραίτητες στην ανάπτυξη, τη διαφοροποίηση και την ωρίμαση του νευρικού συστήματος. H δράση τους έχει συσχετιστεί με αλλαγές στη συμπεριφορά, ψυχικές και κινητικές δυσλειτουργίες.Η ντοπαμινεργική νεύρωση των βασικών γαγγλίων και κυρίως του ραβδωτού, είναι γνωστό ότι, παίζει κεντρικό ρόλο σ’ ένα ευρύ φάσμα κινητικών, γνωστικών και συναισθηματικών λειτουργιών.Ο υποθυρεοειδισμός προκαλεί μορφολογικές διαταραχές σε εγκέφαλο ενήλικα επίμυ, ακριβέστερα μείωση, αξονικής και δενδριτικής ανάπτυξης των νευρώνων του ραβδωτού, και τροποποιεί την ικανότητα δέσμευσης ανταγωνιστών της ντοπαμίνης. Όμως το κυτταρικό και μοριακό υπόβαθρο των ανωτέρω επιδράσεων παραμένει κατά ένα μεγάλο μέρος αδιευκρίνιστο. Κατά την διατριβή αυτή μελετήθηκε η επίδραση του υποθυρεοειδισμού στο ραβδωτό σώμα αρσενικών ενήλικων μυών στην κατάσταση του υποθυρεοειδισμού, προκειμένου να διευκρινισθεί περαιτέρω το υπόβαθρο των δράσεων των θυρεοειδικών ορμονών στο ντοπαμινεργικό σύστημα, στον ενήλικα εγκέφαλο.Με αυτοραδιογραφική μελέτη, δείχθηκε μειωμένη ποσοτική κατανομή των D2, όχι όμως και των D1,υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης στα βασικά γάγγλια εγκεφάλου αρσενικών ενηλίκων υποθυρεοειδικών μυών συγκριτικά με τους ευθυρεοειδικούς. Με μελέτη κορεσμού και ανάλυση κατά Scatchard παρατηρήθηκε μη στατιστικά σημαντική διαφορά στη χημική συγγένεια του ανταγωνιστή των D2 υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης [3H]-raclopride με τους υποδοχεις αυτούς. Παρατηρήθηκε επίσης στατιστικά σημαντική μείωση, 37%, στο ποσό δέσμευσης (Bmax) του ραδιενεργού προσδέτη στους D2 ντοπαμινεργικούς υποδοχείς των αρσενικών υποθυρεοειδικών μυών σε σχέση με τους ευθυρεοειδικούς. Διερευνώντας τα χαρακτηριστικά δέσμευσης των D2 ντοπαμινεργικών υποδοχέων, βρέθηκε στατιστικά σημαντικά αυξημένη η χημική συγγένεια της ντοπαμίνης σε σχέση με αυτή του ανταγωνιστή των D2 υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης [3H]-raclopride για τη θέση υψηλής χημικής συγγένειας και μειωμένη η ποσοστιαία αναλογία των θέσεων δέσμευσης που αφορούν τη θέση υψηλής χημικής συγγένειας στο ραβδωτό σώμα υποθυρεοειδικών μυών συγκριτικά με τους ευθυρεοειδικούς. Αντίθετα στους υποθυρεοειδικούς μύες βρέθηκε μειωμένη η χημική συγγένεια στη θέση χαμηλής χημικής συγγένειας. Η ‘in vitro’ προσθήκη T3 σε ομογενοποίημα ραβδωτού σώματος εγκεφάλου αρσενικών ευθυρεοειδικών μυών προκάλεσε στατιστικά σημαντική μείωση της χημικής συγγένειας στη θέση υψηλής χημικής συγγένειας, συγκριτικά με το αντίστοιχο δείγμα ευθυρεοειδικών μυών. Επίσης, με ενεργοποίηση των Α2Α υποδοχέων αδενοσίνης μέσω του αγωνιστή των Α2Α υποδοχέων αδενοσίνης CGS 21680, παρατηρήθηκε πολλαπλάσια μείωση της χημικής συγγένειας στη θέση υψηλής χημικής συγγένειας των υποθυρεοειδικών δειγμάτων σε σχέση με τα αντίστοιχα των ευθυρεοειδικών, που σημαίνει ενισχυμένη αλληλεπίδραση των Α2Α /D2 υποδοχέων. Τέλος, τα αποτελέσματά μας έδειξαν ότι η επαγόμενη σύνθεση του cΑΜΡ από το SKF38393 (αγωνιστής των D1 υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης) είναι στατιστικά σημαντικά μεγαλύτερη στο ραβδωτό των υποθυρεοειδικών μυών και ότι το σύστημα αλληλεπίδρασης D1/D2 υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης στο ραβδωτό διαφέρει μεταξύ ευθυρεοειδικών και υποθυρεοειδικών μυών. Συγκεκριμένα η από το SKF38393 επαγόμενη σύνθεση του cΑΜΡ όταν αναστέλλεται υπό την παράλληλη δράση της κουινπιρόλης (αγωνιστής των D2 υποδοχέων ντοπαμίνης), παρουσιάζει στο ραβδωτό των ευθυρεοειδικών μυών μια δοσοεξαρτώμενη και αναλογική αναστολή της επαγόμενης σύνθεσης του cΑΜΡ και στο ραβδωτό των υποθυρεοειδικών μυών μια δοσοεξαρτώμενη αλλά όχι αναλογική αναστολή της επαγόμενης σύνθεσης του cΑΜΡ. Ενώ η επαγόμενη από το CGS21680 (αγωνιστής των Α2Α υποδοχέων δείχνει επίσης μεγαλύτερη επαγωγή σύνθεσης cAMP στα υποθυρεοειδικά ζώα αλλά και ενισχυμένη αλληλεπίδραση των Α2Α /D2 υποδοχέων στούς υποθυρεοειδικούς μύες, με στατιστικά σημαντικά μειωμένη σύνθεση του cΑΜΡ μόνο στους υποθυρεοειδικούς μύες. Τα αποτελέσματα της επαγόμενης σύνθεσης του cΑΜΡ πιθανόν παραπέμπουν σε τροποποιημένη δράση των G-πρωτεϊνών στους υποθυρεοειδικούς μύες. Τα αποτελέσματά μας δείχνουν επίδραση των θυρεοειδικών ορμονών στο ραβδωτό σώμα τόσο στον αριθμό των D2 ντοπαμινεργικών υποδοχέων όσο και στην μεταβίβαση σήματος μέσω των ντοπαμινεργικών υποδοχέων. Επίσης υποστηρίζουν την εμπλοκή των θυρεοειδικών ορμονών στην αλληλεπίδραση των ντοπαμινεργικών υποδοχέων με τους υποδοχείς αδενοσίνης σε μεμβρανικό επίπεδο καθώς και σε επίπεδο δευτερογενών μηνυμάτων, δείχνοντας ενισχυμένη αλληλεπίδραση των Α2Α /D2 υποδοχέων στους υποθυρεοειδικούς μύες. / Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) are necessary in differentiation and development but also in the maturation of the central neural system. Their action has been connected with alterations in behavior, as well as with psychological and movement disorders. It is known that the dopaminergic (DA) innervation of the basal ganglia, and in particular of the striatum, plays a central role in most movement, cognitive and emotional functions. Hypothyroidism induces morphological alterations, and more precisely, reductions in the axonal and dendritic sprouting of striatal neurons of adult rat brain and also modifications in the ability of dopamine antagonists’ ligand-binding. However, the underling mechanisms involved at the cellular and molecular level remain unidentified. Aim: In the current dissertation, we studied the effect of hypothyroidism in the striatum of adult, male Balb-c mice, in order to get a better understanding on the underling mechanism(s) of the effect of thyroid hormones on the DAergic system in adult brain. Results: Autoradiography showed a quantitative reduction in the level of D2 receptors in the basal ganglia of adult, male, hypothyroid mice versus that in eythyroid mice. Saturation studies revealed a non- statistically significant alteration in the chemical affinity of D2 receptor antagonist [3H]-raclopride for these receptors. However, a statistically significant reduction (37 %) in Bmax of the radiolabeled ligand was observed in D2 dopaminergic receptors of the hypothyroid mice versus the euthyroid. Similar studies on the pharmacological profile of D2 DAergic receptor binding, showed a statistically significant increase in the binding affinity of dopamine versus [3H]-raclopride, at the high affinity site, and a reduction in the percentage of the binding sites in this site, in the striatum of male, adult hypothyroid mice versus eythyroid. The opposite effect was observed in the low affinity site, where we showed a reduction in the binding affinity. Furthermore, the “in vitro” addition of T3 in striatal homogenates of male, adult euthyroid brain resulted in a statistically significant reduction in the binding affinity, of the high affinity site, compared to euthyroid samples. Also, by activation of A2A adenosine receptors through application of the CGS21680 agonist, a statistically significant reduction was observed in the binding affinity, when at the high affinity site, of the hypothyroid compared to eythyroid samples. Finally the effect of hypothyroidism in the induction of cAMP synthesis was also examined. Our data showed that the SKF38393 (a D1 dopamine receptor agonist)-driven cAMP synthesis is statistically significant in the striatum of adult, male hypothyroid mice and that the D1/D2 interaction system of dopamine receptors is different between euthyroid and hypothyroid mice. This means that when SKF38393-driven cAMP synthesis is suppressed by quinpirole (a D2 dopamine receptor agonist), a dose dependent inhibition is observed in the striatum of euthyroid mice, which is similar, but not proportional to the inhibition observed in the striatum of hypothyroid mice. While the CGS21680 (a Α2Α adenosine receptror agonist)- driven cAMP synthesis is statistically significant in the striatum of adult, male hypothyroid mice versus to euthyroid and that the A2A/D2 interaction system of adenosine/dopamine receptors is different between euthyroid and hypothyroid mice. Only in hypothyroid mice the A2A-diven cAMP synthesis is statistically suppressed in a dose dependent manner, by costimulation of D2.receptors. Conclusions: Our results show the effect of thyroid hormones on the number of DAergic receptors level and on their signal transduction levels, after dopamine receptors activation in the striatum of adult, male mice. These observations mark the involvement of thyroid hormones in the interactions of the DAergic receptors with the adenosinergic receptors, both at the receptor-receptor and the signal transduction level.

Medications that treat diseases such as Parkinson???s disease work by regulating dopamine transmission at synapses. Surprisingly, little is known about the mechanisms regulating dopamine release at synapses. In this thesis, we study mechanisms that regulate vesicle recycling in axons and dendrites of dopamine neurons. Key questions we addressed were: (1) Are vesicles in axons and dendrites associated with the same regulatory proteins, and thus by implication the same regulatory mechanisms, as in excitatory neurons; (2) Do vesicles undergo recycling, and (3) if so, are they characterised by a distinct pool size and rate of recycling. To study this, we cultured dopamine neurons and used immunocytochemistry to detect vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) and identify axons, dendrites and synaptic proteins, combined with labelling of recycling vesicles using FM 1-43. Vesicles in axons, but not in dendrites, were associated with presynaptic proteins such as Synaptophysin and Bassoon. We identified two kinds of presynaptic sites in axons: ???synaptic??? (located close to soma and dendrites??? and ???orphan???. The recycling vesicle pool size was smaller at orphan sites than at synaptic sites, and the initial rate of vesicle pool release was also lower at orphan sites. Both synaptic and orphan sites exhibited lower rates of vesicle pool release compared to hippocampal synapses, suggesting functional differences in presynaptic physiology between dopamine neurons and hippocampal neurons. In somatodendritic regions, VMAT2 was localised to the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, endosome, and large dense-core vesicles, suggesting that these vesicles might function as a part of the regulated secretory pathway in mediating dopamine release. None of the synaptic vesicle proteins we studied were detected in these regions, although some preliminary evidence of vesicle turnover was detected using FM 1-43 labelling. This thesis provides a detailed analysis of neurotransmitter release mechanisms in dopamine neurons. Our data suggests that presynaptic release of dopamine is mediated by mechanisms similar to those observed in excitatory neurons. In somatodendritic regions, our data suggests that VMAT2 is localised to organelles in secretory pathways, and that distinct mechanisms of release might be present at somatodendritic sites to those present in presynaptic sites. This thesis provides novel methods for analysing vesicle recycling in dopamine neurons, which provides the basis for further studies examining presynaptic function of dopamine neurons in normal brain function, disease, and therapeutic approaches.

Thesis (M.S. in Biological Sciences)--Vanderbilt University, May 2008. / Title from title screen. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2007. / Full text release at OhioLINK's ETD Center delayed at author's request