Aerosols generated in the Institute for Clean Energy (ICET) High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filter test stand become charged due to triboelectric processes during production. High-activity beta sources are used to generate ion pairs within the HEPA test stand. The generated ion pairs bind with aerosols to effectively neutralize surface charges on the aerosols. Several methods to calculate the ion pair concentration within the HEPA test stand are described. Several buildings at Oak Ridge National Lab (ORNL) have been slated for decontamination and decommissioning. Contaminating isotopes must be identified and located. Systematic surveys using gamma-ray scintillation detectors can be used to locate and identify gamma-emitting isotopes. Discussed are methods that use gamma-ray spectroscopy data collected during surveys to locate, identify, determine source strength and corresponding dose rates. Survey data are then used to construct radiation intensity and dose rate maps of the interior of the surveyed structures.

This thesis focuses on how physical and biological factors influence the outcome of exposures to γ/X-rays. That the dose rate changes during real life exposure scenarios is well-known, but radiobiological data from exposures performed at increasing or decreasing dose rates is lacking. In paper I, it was found that an exposure where the dose rate decreases exponentially induces significantly higher levels of micronuclei in TK6 cells than exposures at an increasing or constant dose rate. Paper II describes the construction and validation of novel exposure equipment used to further study this “decreasing dose rate effect”, which is described in paper III. In paper I we also observed a radioprotective effect when cells were exposed on ice. This “temperature effect” (TE) has been known for decades but it is still not fully understood how hypothermia acts in a radioprotective manner. This was investigated in paper IV, where a multiparametric approach was used to investigate the underlying mechanisms. In paper V the aim was to investigate the role of biomarkers and clinical parameters as possible risk factors for late adverse effects to radiotherapy (RT). This was studied in a rare cohort of head-and-neck cancer patients that developed mandibular osteoradionecrosis (ORN) as a severe late adverse effect of RT. Biomarker measurements and clinical factors were then subjected to multivariate analysis in order to identify ORN risk factors. The results suggest that the patient’s oxidative stress response is an important factor in ORN pathogenesis, and support the current view that patient-related factors constitute the largest source of variation seen in the frequency of late adverse effects to RT. In summary, this thesis provides new and important insights into the roles of biological and physical factors in determining the consequences of γ/X-ray exposures. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Submitted. Paper 5: Manuscript.</p>

As radiações ionizantes (RI) são amplamente utilizadas na área médica, principalmente para diagnóstico e terapia. Uma vez que a exposição às radiações implica em sérias complicações para a saúde humana e para o meio ambiente, torna-se relevante a compreensão dos mecanismos moleculares que coordenam as respostas em diferentes tipos celulares, especialmente em células normais. A taxa de dose (TD) é um importante fator a ser considerado em radiobiologia, com base em alguns estudos sobre a sua influência nas respostas celulares. Nesse contexto, duas TD distintas (0,5 e 2,0Gy/min) foram testadas para verificar a influência da TD na expressão gênica e protéica em fibroblastos e linfócitos humanos. Fibroblastos primários em estado de confluência foram irradiados com 4Gy e linfócitos com 2 Gy, sob as TDs de 0,5 e 2,0 Gy/min. Em fibroblastos, o RNA foi coletado 6 h após a irradiação, tempo em que foram analisados os níveis de expressão gênica pelo método de microarranjos de cDNA e, para alguns genes de reparo do DNA e algumas proteínas (H2AX, PCNA e FEN1) a expressão foi analisada por qPCR e Western blot, respectivamente, em ambos os tipos celulares, 2 e 6 h após a irradiação. A análise de expressão gênica por microarranjos de cDNA efetuada pelo programa SAM revelou 94 genes (FDR < 0.05) induzidos sob a TD de 0,5 Gy/min. Os principais processos biológicos associados aos genes modulados foram metabolismo, reparo do DNA, apoptose e resposta ao estresse. Por outro lado, 34 genes foram modulados nas células irradiadas sob a taxa de dose de 2,0 Gy/min. Nesta TD, os processos biológicos de maior importância foram: metabolismo, reparo do DNA, replicação, resposta ao estresse e apoptose. Na análise por qPCR, alguns genes de reparo (ERCC1, ERCC3 (ou XPB), XPF, XPA, FEN1) e ATM (sensor de dano) apresentaram uma ampla diferença na modulação gênica detectada em resposta à variação na TD, principalmente nos fibroblastos analisados 2 h após a irradiação. Entretanto, essa diferença foi menor nos linfócitos. Em linfócitos houve um maior número de genes do NER reprimidos relativamente aos fibroblastos, principalmente quando se consideram as células analisadas 2 h após a irradiação, sugerindo que em linfócitos irradiados sob a menor TD, outras vias alternativas de reparo do DNA podem ter ocorrido, possivelmente para lesões do tipo quebra dupla, que são eficientemente induzidas por 2 Gy. A análise protéica de expressão da proteína PCNA indicou que esta se mostrou reprimida nos fibroblastos irradiados com a maior TD, enquanto que a expressão de H2AX nos linfócitos diminuiu 6 h após a irradiação. A proteína PCNA apresentou potencial como um bom indicador dos efeitos de diferentes TDs em fibroblastos irradiados. Em conjunto, os resultados do presente trabalho mostraram uma ampla variedade de processos biológicos envolvidos na resposta ao estresse gerado pela irradiação sob duas diferentes TDs em células humanas (linfócitos e fibroblastos) demonstrando que a TD realmente é capaz de influenciar as respostas celulares em nível transcricional e protéico, o que ainda não foi descrito na literatura. Assim, os resultados constituem informações relevantes que podem contribuir para o esclarecimento das respostas moleculares e vias de sinalização em células normais irradiadas. / Ionizing radiation (IR) has been widely applied in medicine, mainly in diagnosis and therapy purposes. Considering that the exposure to radiation lead to serious complications to human health and environment, it has been relevant to study molecular mechanisms underlying cell responses to gamma-rays in different cell types, especially in normal cells. In radiobiology, dose rate (DR) is an important factor to be taken in account, on the basis of previous results in the literature. In this context, two distinct DR (0.5 and 2.0Gy/min.) were tested aiming to verify the influence of DR on profiles of gene and protein expression displayed by human fibroblasts and lymphocytes. Confluent primary fibroblasts were irradiated with 4Gy and lymphocytes with 2 Gy of -rays, doses delivered at 0.5 and 2.0 Gy/min. RNA was extracted at 6 h post-irradiation for the expression analysis by the cDNA array method in fibroblasts. Few DNA repair genes and proteins (H2AX, PCNA and FEN1) were analyzed by qPCR and Western blot, respectively, in both cell types, at two time-points (2 and 6 h post-irradiation). Results on gene expression were analyzed by the SAM method, which indicated 94 up-regulated genes (False discovery rate < 0.05) at 0.5 Gy/min. The most significant biological processes associated with modulated genes were metabolism, DNA repair, apoptosis signaling and stress response. On the other hand, 34 genes were modulated in cells irradiated at 2.0 Gy/min. (4 up-regulated and 30 down-regulated genes). For such DR, the major biological processes were metabolism, DNA repair, replication, stress response and apoptosis. By using qPCR method, some DNA repair genes (ERCC1, ERCC3 (or XPB), XPF, XPA, FEN1) and ATM (damage sensor) were studied. A wide difference in gene modulation was detected in response to different DR, mainly for fibroblasts analyzed at 2 h post-irradiation. However, this difference was slight in lymphocytes, suggesting that other alternative repair pathways could occurr in irradiated lymphocytes under low TD, possibly in consequence of DNA lesions such as double strand breaks, which are efficiently induced by 2 Gy. Interestingly, the expression of PCNA was down-regulated in fibroblasts irradiated at 2.0 Gy/min, while the expression of H2AX in lymphocytes decreased at both DR 6 h post-irradiation, These findings indicated several biological processes involved in stress responses generated by irradiation at two different DR in human cells. Actually, DR influenced cellular responses at transcriptional and protein levels. These data obtained at molecular level provide relevant information towards clarifying the mechanisms underlying cellular responses displayed by irradiated- normal cells.

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