As cianotoxinas, potencialmente prejudiciais à saúde dos homens e animais, são toxinas produzidas pelas cianobactérias e que podem estar presentes em reservatórios utilizados para captação de água para abastecimento, sobretudo em função do agravamento das condições sanitárias das bacias hidrográficas. Diante disso, torna-se fundamental que a água esteja adequada ao consumo humano em sua distribuição. Uma das formas de tratamento para remoção das cianotoxinas que vem sendo estudada é por meio do uso de carvão ativado granular (CAG), cuja eficiência depende de suas características intrínsecas e das condições operacionais. Outra possibilidade para remoção de tais toxinas se dá por meio da utilização de microrganismos capazes de promover sua biodegradação. A presente pesquisa analisou o potencial de remoção de microcistina por meio de adsorção por três diferentes CAGs comerciais (materiais de origem: casca de coco, mineral e osso) e por meio da degradação biológica por dois gêneros de bactérias. Para isso, foi utilizado um extrato de toxina produzido por meio do cultivo de Microcystis aeruginosa (cepa BB005) em meio WC, ao longo de 30 dias, com fotoperíodo de 12 h. Os carvões foram caracterizados de acordo com a massa específica aparente, umidade, pH, teor de cinzas, número de iodo, índice de azul de metileno e área superficial específica. Em seguida, foram realizados ensaios de adsorção com a microcistina (concentração inicial de 100 µg.L-1) para construção de isotermas com tempo de equilíbrio de 1 h. As análises de toxina foram realizadas pelo método ELISA e os dados foram ajustados aos modelos matemáticos de Langmuir e de Freundlich. Os melhores resultados de adsorção foram obtidos a partir do carvão de origem mineral (99% de remoção), que apresentou valores maiores para número de iodo (710 mgI2.g-1), índice de azul de metileno (169 mL.g-1), área superficial específica (911 m2.g-1) e porcentagem de microporos (70%), com melhor ajuste da isoterma obtido pelo modelo de Freundlich (R2 = 0,88). Os ensaios de biodegradação da microcistina com os gêneros Sphingomonas sp. e Brevundimonas sp foram realizados com a toxina esterilizada e não esterilizada (concentração inicial de 75 µg.L-1). Os resultados demonstraram que tais bactérias não foram capazes de degradar a toxina esterilizada. Entretanto, foi observada degradação nos ensaios em que a toxina não estava esterilizada (porcentagem de remoção de 98%), indicando a presença de algum microrganismo e/ou enzima atuante nesse processo, uma vez que o cultivo da cepa para obtenção do extrato não foi realizado sob condições de assepsia. Recomenda-se, para futuras pesquisas, a identificação do responsável pela biodegradação da microcistina, bem como a aplicação do carvão mineral em maior escala (filtro de leito fixo). Deste modo, será possível avaliar a formação de biofilme no leito de carvão, e comparar o desempenho da adsorção e da biodegradação na remoção do poluente-alvo em escala mais próxima à real. / The cyanotoxins, which are potentially harmful to the health of humans and animals, are toxins produced by cyanobacteria. They can be found in reservoirs used for water supply, especially due to the degradation of sanitary conditions within the watersheds. Therefore, it is essential to assure potable water for human consumption in its distribution. The use of granular activated carbon (GAC) has been studied for advanced water treatment and cyanotoxins\' removal. The efficiency of such technology depends on activated carbon intrinsic characteristics and operating conditions. Removing such toxins through biodegration by microrganisms is another possibility. The present study was perfomed in laboratory conditions and analyzed microcystin removal by adsorption by three commercial GACs (source materials: coconut shell, mineral and bone) and through the biological degradation by two genera of bacteria. An extract of toxin was produced by the cultivation of Microcystis aeruginosa (strain BB005), in medium WC throughout 30 days, with a 12 h photoperiod. The activated carbon samples were characterized regarding the apparent density, moisture, pH, ash content, iodine number, methylene blue index and specific surface area. Thereafter, adsorption experiments were conducted with microcystin (initial concentration of 100 µg.L-1) for estimating isotherms considering an equilibrium time of 1 h. The toxin analyses were performed by the ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) and the data were adjusted to the mathematical models of Langmuir and Freundlich. The best adsorption results were obtained with the mineral carbon (removal percentages of 98%), which also showed the highest values for the iodine number (710 mgI2.g-1), methylene blue index (169 mL.g-1), specific surface area (911 m2.g-1) and percentage of micropores (70%), with best adjustment of the isotherm through the Freundlich model (R2 = 0.88). The biodegradation tests of microcystin with Sphingomonas sp. and Brevundimonas sp. were carried out with the sterile and non-sterile toxin (initial concentration of 75 µg.L-1). The results showed that these bacteria were not able to promote degradation of the toxin when it was sterilized. However, the degradation was observed in those tests in which the toxin was not sterilized (reduction up to 98%), suggesting the presence of a microrganism and/or an enzyme responsible for this process, since the cultivation of the strain for obtaining the extract was not performed under sterile conditions. As for future research, it is recommendedthe identification of the factor responsible for the biodegradation of the microcystin, as well as the study of the use of the activated carbon from mineral source in a larger scale (fixed-bed filter). This would help to reach a scale closer to the real water treatment plants and evaluate the biofilm formation in the carbon bed, allowing the comparison of the performance of both adsorption and biodegradation processes in the removal of the target pollutant.

Neste projeto de pesquisa avaliou-se a etapa de filtração no processo de tratamento de água para abastecimento público. Para isto, foi utilizado um sistema de filtração piloto composto por quatro filtros rápidos por gravidade de camada profunda. Os filtros piloto foram alimentados com água decantada da Estação de Tratamento de Água Rio Grande, e operados com taxa de filtração de 500 m3/m2/dia. A concepção dos filtros variou em termos de material filtrante (areia e antracito), diâmetro dos grãos e altura do leito. Os filtros foram avaliados em termos de turbidez, contagem de partículas, evolução de perda de carga e velocidade ascensional de água de lavagem. Na Etapa 1, operando-se filtros de areia e antracito com diferentes diâmetros, o filtro de antracito com 1,3 mm de diâmetro e 120 cm de altura apresentou melhor comportamento no tocante aos parâmetros avaliados. Na etapa 2, comparando-se filtros de areia e de antracito com mesmo diâmetro (1,3 mm) e altura de leito (120 cm), mais uma vez o filtro de antracito foi superior. Acredita-se que os índices físicos justifiquem esse comportamento. Na Etapa 3, conclui-se que o aumento de altura de leito dos filtros de areia (1,3 mm) e antracito (1,3 mm) de 120 cm para 160 cm foi benéfico para ambos os materiais filtrantes em termos de qualidade do efluente, mas muito mais significativo para o antracito, e não se observou alteração de comportamento no tocante à evolução de perda de carga. Com o ensaio de fluidificação e expansão do leito filtrante, conclui-se que, considerando-se o mesmo tempo de duração da lavagem e a mesma expansão do leito, o filtro de antracito possibilitou a utilização de menor velocidade ascensional de água de lavagem, que representa grande economia com relação aos custos do sistema de lavagem. Assim, em todos os aspectos estudados, o uso de antracito (1,3 mm) como material filtrante para filtros rápidos por gravidade de camada profunda se mostrou mais vantajoso. / This project researched the filtration stage in the water treatment process for public use. The research used a pilot filtration system based on four rapid gravity depth bed filters, with a filtration rate of 500m3/m2/dia. The water used in the experiment came from sedimentation tank of the Rio Grande water treatment facility. During the experimental phase the filters were loaded with different depth, used different filter media (sand and anthracite) and used grain with different effective size. The filters were evaluated in terms of turbidity, particle count, head loss and superficial velocity of backwashing water. In the first part of the study, when analyzing the results of filters loaded to a depth of 120 cm using both sand and anthracite with different size, the anthracite filter with effective size of 1.3 mm was the one with the best results. In the second part of the study, when comparing anthracite and sand with same the effective size, the anthracite also presented better results. Finally when increasing the depth of the filter, both sand and anthracite filters showed improved performance in terms of effluent quality, but anthracite filters kept outperforming sand filters. In both case, there were no evidences of changing in the head loss development. When performing fluidization and expansion experiments, considering the same backwashing cycle time and expansion of filter media, the anthracite filter allowed lower superficial velocity which represents relevant economies in the washing system costs. Therefore the use of anthracite (1.3mm) as a filter medium for rapid gravity depth bed filters is recommended.

Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is the process of treating microbiologically contaminated water in clear plastic bottles through exposure to sunlight. One of the major limiting factors of this treatment is source water quality. This work investigates the impact of organic matter and turbidity on SODIS efficiency. Organic matter was found to decrease bacterial inactivation to a much greater extent than the presence of inorganic particles. The ability of moringa oleifera seed emulsion to clarify source waters was investigated as a coagulation pretreatment. This coagulant is most effective in highly turbid, high humic content waters, and achieves up to 1-log bacterial removal. The combined moringa oleifera coagulation-SODIS treatment sequence was tested in highly coloured natural source water and was found to reduce the sunlight exposure time required by up to 2 hours. Treated water should be consumed immediately following the individual or combined treatments due to the potential for bacterial regrowth.

Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is the process of treating microbiologically contaminated water in clear plastic bottles through exposure to sunlight. One of the major limiting factors of this treatment is source water quality. This work investigates the impact of organic matter and turbidity on SODIS efficiency. Organic matter was found to decrease bacterial inactivation to a much greater extent than the presence of inorganic particles. The ability of moringa oleifera seed emulsion to clarify source waters was investigated as a coagulation pretreatment. This coagulant is most effective in highly turbid, high humic content waters, and achieves up to 1-log bacterial removal. The combined moringa oleifera coagulation-SODIS treatment sequence was tested in highly coloured natural source water and was found to reduce the sunlight exposure time required by up to 2 hours. Treated water should be consumed immediately following the individual or combined treatments due to the potential for bacterial regrowth.

A series of pilot-scale granular media filtration experiments was conducted to examine the effect of media roughness on filter performance and to evaluate the applicability of spherical, rough engineered ceramic filter media for use in granular media filters used for drinking water treatment. Filter media performance was assessed using turbidity and particle count reductions, Cryptosporidium oocyst and oocyst-sized microsphere removal, head loss and stability of operation. Experiments were designed to allow related facets of current filtration research to be examined. These included: effect of loading rate, coagulant type and dosage, and suitability of latex microspheres as surrogates for Cryptosporidium oocyst removal by granular media filtration. This study indicated that increased filter media roughness consistently improved turbidity and particle count reduction under the conditions investigated. As well, the engineered media also consistently achieved greater stability of operation during non-ideal operational periods (e.g. sudden change in filter influent turbidity).Oocyst removals were generally improved by media roughness, though this improvement was reliant on operating conditions, such as coagulant dose and type of coagulant used. The surrogate relationship between oocyst-sized latex microspheres and oocyst removal by filtration was also dependent on coagulant dose and type of coagulant. During trials with no coagulant addition, contrasts in oocyst removal were not significant, suggesting that neither surface roughness nor the size of media used were significant factors impacting oocyst removal by filtration during those periods of impaired operation. When pre-treating raw water with PACl, the engineered ceramic media achieved up to 1.25 log10 higher oocyst removals than conventional media. This improvement in oocyst removal relative to conventional media was not observed when alum was used as the primary coagulant, however. Future studies should directly compare engineered and conventional media filtration performance, using other raw water sources and different operating conditions. Biologically active filtration should also be included in future performance studies because the rough, highly porous surface of the engineered ceramic media is likely to provide excellent biofilm support.

The use of sunlight for water disinfection has been practiced since ancient times. Only in the last three decades has solar disinfection become widely recognized as a viable means of providing safe drinking water to the disadvantaged portion of the world’s population. The World Health Organization estimates that 1.6 million people die every year because of waterborne diseases. <br/><br/> The Swiss Federal Institute of Environmental Science and Technology and their Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries have been instrumental in propagating the solar water disinfection (SODIS) process in developing countries. The reason for this technology being widely used and accepted is its ease of use and effectiveness: water is placed in clear plastic bottles and exposed to direct sunlight for approximately six hours. The microorganisms in the water absorb the sunlight and it, in turn at sufficient UV dosages, causes mutations to their genetic material, inhibiting reproduction. Although some pathogens may still be viable they are no longer infective. The result is microbiologically safe water. <br/><br/> Research to date has explored everything from which colour and size the SODIS containers should be to whether adding catalysts to the water before exposure improves disinfection. Apart from a few studies that examined the effect of shaking the bottles (to entrain air) before exposure, there has been limited research on pretreatments for enhancing solar disinfection. <br/><br/> The focus of this project was to explore two pretreatments for SODIS and determine how they affect the efficiency of the process. The first stage was to examine one of the currently used pretreatments: cleaning the water containers before use. The second stage was to develop an accessible, low-cost filtration technique to remove particles from the water before exposure to sunlight. Particles in the water disperse the light and protect the microorganisms from being inactivated, so it is important to have as few particles as possible; the recommended upper limit is 30 NTU for solar disinfection. In many instances, surface water with high turbidity (greater than 200 NTU) serves as the only source for drinking water in developing areas. <br/><br/> The first series of experiments in the current research evaluated if cleaning the bottles was necessary and if so, which cleaning agents would be most effective and available. The agents selected were 70% isopropyl alcohol, a soap-water mixture, and lime juice. The experiments demonstrated that cleaning with 70% isopropyl alcohol did not affect the process in any way. Cleaning with the soap-water mixture did have a slightly negative effect on the process; there was substantial microbial recovery when bottles were kept in the dark overnight. In the case of the lime juice, it actually inhibited the disinfection process. It is necessary to remove any debris that might exist within the containers before using them, but using a chemical cleaning agent or mechanically scrubbing can decrease the amount of disinfection that occurs during SODIS. Thus, it is suggested that using a chemical pretreatment is not necessary and has the potential to inhibit disinfection, especially without proper training or technical knowledge. <br/><br/> The second series of experiments identified the optimal design for a low-cost roughing filter that could be used to remove particles from water before exposure to sunlight. The roughing filter that was built from the same plastic pop bottles used for solar disinfection, as well as gravel and sand. It was constructed with three centimetres of gravel on the bottom of the pop bottle and then 17 cm of coarse sand was added on top to make the total filter height 20 cm. A 0.6 mm hole was made at approximately 1.5 cm from the bottom of the bottle using a standard sewing needle. Each filter run consisted of 10 L of water at approximately 200 NTU. Experimental results indicated that 95% removal of turbidity could be achieved. These roughing filters can be constructed from readily available and affordable materials in developing countries and produce an effluent water quality of less than 30 NTU when initial turbidities are greater than 200 NTU. <br/><br/> Finally, the third series of experiments focused on testing the newly developed roughing filter in series with SODIS to evaluate the system as a whole. The results confirmed that using the roughing filter, as a pretreatment to SODIS, is a highly effective means of improving the disinfection potential of the process. These roughing filters produce an effluent water quality of less than 30 NTU, which is required for SODIS, making them a viable pretreatment for turbid water intended for SODIS use.

Syftet med examensarbetet var att undersöka effekterna av ozonering och filtrering på råvattnet från sjön Mälaren. Studien är utförd i en pilotanläggning på Lovö vattenverk, Stockholm Vatten AB, under våren 2004. En negativ effekt med den konventionella reningen är den stora konsumtionen av kemiska koagulanter. Kemikalieanvändningen leder till många transporter och processen producerar också ett slam som för närvarande transporteras till Mälaren. År 2001 byggdes en pilotanläggning på Lovö vattenverk för utveckling av nya processer, en av processerna är ozonering följt av olika filter. Ozonering har använts i Europa i många år som desinfektion i slutet av dricksvattenreningsprocessen. Intresset för ozonering har ökat markant sista åren och idag används ozonet också i andra steg i processen. Förutom desinfektion har ozonet andra fördelar, som oxidation av järn och magnesium, mikroflockning, reduktion av lukt och smak samt är bra på att reducera färgen på vattnet. Mikroflockningen leder till att kemikalieanvändningen kan minska och i vissa fall tas bort helt. Den här studien startade med en litteraturundersökning följd av försök med ozonering och filtrering i pilotanläggningen. De första undersökningarna sammanfattades med att ozonering följt av filtrering inte gav tillräckligt bra resultat och processen behöver ett komplement för att producera ett högklassigt vatten. Undersökningen fortsatte med laboratorieanalyser för att undersöka effekterna av olika kemiska koagulanter. Resultatet visade att järnsulfat tillsammans med kalcium var ett bra alternativ och en lägre kemikaliedos kunde användas. Efter implementering av kalcium och järnsulfat till pilotanläggningen testades olika ozondoser och olika järnsulfatdoser. Det bästa resultatet erhölls då man använde sig av en ozondos på 6 mg O3/l och en järnsulfatdos på 50-60 μmol/l. Denna mängd av järnsulfat är ca 60 % lägre än den dos som används vid den konventionella reningen på Lovö vattenverk. Olika filter används i pilotanläggningen och för att förbättra resultatet provades även ett Filtralite-filter som biofilter istället för GAC-filtret. Jämförelsen mellan Filtralite-filter och GAC-filter visade på stora skillnader i parametervärden i början av studietiden. När bakteriepopulationen ökade i Filtralite-filtret blev skillnaderna mindre och i slutet av undersökningstiden var parametervärdena likartade. Det slutliga resultatet indikerar att Filtralite-filter kan vara ett bra alternativ som biofilter. / This Master thesis was made to investigate the effects of ozonation and filtration on raw water from Lake Mälaren. The study was performed in lab-scale as well as in a pilot plant at Lovö waterworks, Stockholm Water Company during spring 2004. The conventional treatment at Lovö waterworks comes with a few disadvantages, such as large consumption of chemical coagulants. The chemical consumption leads to many transports and the treatment also produces a sludge which is, in present, returned to Lake Mälaren. In 2001 a pilot plant were built at Lovö waterworks for research on new treatment processes, and ozonation followed by filtration is one of them. Ozonation has been used in Europe for several years as disinfection at the end of the drinking water treatment process. The interests of ozonation has increased significantly in recent years and today the ozonation is used in other steps in the drinking water treatment process. Except for the disinfection, ozone has other benefits such as oxidation of iron and manganese, microflocculation, reduction of taste and odour and it is also effective to reduce the water colour. The microflocculation leads to the fact that less or no coagulants need to be used in the process. This study started with a literature overview followed by experiments on ozonation and filtration in the pilot plant. After the first experiments the conclusions were that the ozonation and filtration did not reach the same results as Lovö waterworks. To continue, jar tests were made to see the effects of different coagulants. The result indicated that ferric sulphate together with calcium addition (pH-adjustment) was a good alternative. Thereby a lower coagulant dose could be used. When ferric sulphate and calcium were implemented into the pilot plant, different ozone doses and ferric sulphate doses were tested. The best results occurred when an ozone dose of 6 mg O3/l and a ferric sulphate dose of 50-60 μmol/l were used. This amount of ferric sulphate is approximately 60 % lower than that for the conventional treatment at Lovö waterworks. To produce ozone electrons are needed and energy consumption increases with approximately 66 % compared to the conventional treatment. The decrease in chemical dose and increase in energy demand gives a decrease of the total cost with 10 % compared to the conventional treatment. The results indicate that the treatment with ozonation, calcium addition and ferric sulphate as a coagulant is an alternative to the conventional treatment. Different filters were used in the pilot plant and to improve the results a Filtralite-filter was tested instead of the GAC-filter as a bio filter. When comparing Filtralite-filter with the GAC-filter there were large differences between the filters at the beginning of the study. When the bacteria population in the Filtralite-filter had started to increase the differences became less. In the end of the experimental period the filters had similar conditions and Filtralite-filter may be a good alternative as a biofilter.

A series of pilot-scale granular media filtration experiments was conducted to examine the effect of media roughness on filter performance and to evaluate the applicability of spherical, rough engineered ceramic filter media for use in granular media filters used for drinking water treatment. Filter media performance was assessed using turbidity and particle count reductions, Cryptosporidium oocyst and oocyst-sized microsphere removal, head loss and stability of operation. Experiments were designed to allow related facets of current filtration research to be examined. These included: effect of loading rate, coagulant type and dosage, and suitability of latex microspheres as surrogates for Cryptosporidium oocyst removal by granular media filtration. This study indicated that increased filter media roughness consistently improved turbidity and particle count reduction under the conditions investigated. As well, the engineered media also consistently achieved greater stability of operation during non-ideal operational periods (e.g. sudden change in filter influent turbidity).Oocyst removals were generally improved by media roughness, though this improvement was reliant on operating conditions, such as coagulant dose and type of coagulant used. The surrogate relationship between oocyst-sized latex microspheres and oocyst removal by filtration was also dependent on coagulant dose and type of coagulant. During trials with no coagulant addition, contrasts in oocyst removal were not significant, suggesting that neither surface roughness nor the size of media used were significant factors impacting oocyst removal by filtration during those periods of impaired operation. When pre-treating raw water with PACl, the engineered ceramic media achieved up to 1.25 log10 higher oocyst removals than conventional media. This improvement in oocyst removal relative to conventional media was not observed when alum was used as the primary coagulant, however. Future studies should directly compare engineered and conventional media filtration performance, using other raw water sources and different operating conditions. Biologically active filtration should also be included in future performance studies because the rough, highly porous surface of the engineered ceramic media is likely to provide excellent biofilm support.

The use of sunlight for water disinfection has been practiced since ancient times. Only in the last three decades has solar disinfection become widely recognized as a viable means of providing safe drinking water to the disadvantaged portion of the world’s population. The World Health Organization estimates that 1.6 million people die every year because of waterborne diseases. <br/><br/> The Swiss Federal Institute of Environmental Science and Technology and their Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries have been instrumental in propagating the solar water disinfection (SODIS) process in developing countries. The reason for this technology being widely used and accepted is its ease of use and effectiveness: water is placed in clear plastic bottles and exposed to direct sunlight for approximately six hours. The microorganisms in the water absorb the sunlight and it, in turn at sufficient UV dosages, causes mutations to their genetic material, inhibiting reproduction. Although some pathogens may still be viable they are no longer infective. The result is microbiologically safe water. <br/><br/> Research to date has explored everything from which colour and size the SODIS containers should be to whether adding catalysts to the water before exposure improves disinfection. Apart from a few studies that examined the effect of shaking the bottles (to entrain air) before exposure, there has been limited research on pretreatments for enhancing solar disinfection. <br/><br/> The focus of this project was to explore two pretreatments for SODIS and determine how they affect the efficiency of the process. The first stage was to examine one of the currently used pretreatments: cleaning the water containers before use. The second stage was to develop an accessible, low-cost filtration technique to remove particles from the water before exposure to sunlight. Particles in the water disperse the light and protect the microorganisms from being inactivated, so it is important to have as few particles as possible; the recommended upper limit is 30 NTU for solar disinfection. In many instances, surface water with high turbidity (greater than 200 NTU) serves as the only source for drinking water in developing areas. <br/><br/> The first series of experiments in the current research evaluated if cleaning the bottles was necessary and if so, which cleaning agents would be most effective and available. The agents selected were 70% isopropyl alcohol, a soap-water mixture, and lime juice. The experiments demonstrated that cleaning with 70% isopropyl alcohol did not affect the process in any way. Cleaning with the soap-water mixture did have a slightly negative effect on the process; there was substantial microbial recovery when bottles were kept in the dark overnight. In the case of the lime juice, it actually inhibited the disinfection process. It is necessary to remove any debris that might exist within the containers before using them, but using a chemical cleaning agent or mechanically scrubbing can decrease the amount of disinfection that occurs during SODIS. Thus, it is suggested that using a chemical pretreatment is not necessary and has the potential to inhibit disinfection, especially without proper training or technical knowledge. <br/><br/> The second series of experiments identified the optimal design for a low-cost roughing filter that could be used to remove particles from water before exposure to sunlight. The roughing filter that was built from the same plastic pop bottles used for solar disinfection, as well as gravel and sand. It was constructed with three centimetres of gravel on the bottom of the pop bottle and then 17 cm of coarse sand was added on top to make the total filter height 20 cm. A 0.6 mm hole was made at approximately 1.5 cm from the bottom of the bottle using a standard sewing needle. Each filter run consisted of 10 L of water at approximately 200 NTU. Experimental results indicated that 95% removal of turbidity could be achieved. These roughing filters can be constructed from readily available and affordable materials in developing countries and produce an effluent water quality of less than 30 NTU when initial turbidities are greater than 200 NTU. <br/><br/> Finally, the third series of experiments focused on testing the newly developed roughing filter in series with SODIS to evaluate the system as a whole. The results confirmed that using the roughing filter, as a pretreatment to SODIS, is a highly effective means of improving the disinfection potential of the process. These roughing filters produce an effluent water quality of less than 30 NTU, which is required for SODIS, making them a viable pretreatment for turbid water intended for SODIS use.

Point-of-use (POU) and point-of-entry (POE) water treatment are forms of decentralized water treatment that are becoming increasingly sought alternatives for ensuring the safety of drinking water. Although the acceptance of POU and POE systems is still the subject of some debate, it is generally acknowledged that they have a role to play in drinking water treatment. However, some of the main drivers for the increase in the use of POU and POE alternatives include: (1) the emergence of new technologies with high removal efficiencies of target contaminants; (2) the enhanced certification system of POU and POE treatment devices and components which ensures that devices have been well engineered to achieve defined contaminant removal targets and do not add contaminants from materials of construction; (3) the inclusion of POU and POE systems as acceptable means to comply with drinking water standards; and (4) the concerns voiced by consumers in several surveys regarding the safety of centrally treated drinking water; which, regardless of whether or not these concerns are justified, have led to an increase in the use of POU and POE treatment systems. With the commercialization of these devices the task of selecting a suitable device for treatment has become cumbersome. When the inherent complexity of a particular drinking water treatment task is added to the mix, a complex decision making situation is created. Thus the need for designing a decision support tool to compare and select POU and POE treatment systems was evident. Currently the best decision aid for selecting POU and POE systems is NSF International’s listing of the devices and their contaminant reduction claims. A significant contribution of this research is the depiction of an appropriate conceptual framework for developing usable and valid decision support systems (DSSs) to select or design water or wastewater treatment systems. A thorough investigation of the methods used to develop DSSs benchmarked a systematic approach to developing DSSs, which includes the analysis of the treatment problem(s), knowledge acquisition and representation, and the identification and evaluation of criteria controlling the selection of optimal treatment systems. Finally, it was concluded that there is a need to develop integrated DSSs that are generic, user-friendly and employ a systems analysis approach. Another significant contribution of this research is applying a systems analysis approach to outline aspects of implementation, management, and governance of POU and POE water treatment systems. The analysis also included a timeline of the progress of POU and POE treatment from regulatory, industry and certification, and research perspectives. Results of the analysis were considered the first step of a conceptual framework for the sustainability assessment of POU and POE treatment systems which acts as the basis for developing a decision support system that will help select sustainable POU or POE treatment systems. In the context of POU and POE treatment, sustainability encompasses providing: (a) safe drinking water to help maintain good human health and hygiene; (b) minimum negative impact on the environment; (c) better use of human, natural, and financial resources; (d) a high degree of functional robustness and flexibility; and (e) cultural acceptance thus encouraging responsible behavior by the users. The most significant contribution of this research is developing, for the first time, a set of sustainability criteria, objectives, and quantifiable indicators to properly assess the sustainability of the various POU and POE alternatives. Twenty five quantitative and qualitative indicators covering technical, economic, environmental, and socio-cultural aspects of implementing a POU or a POE system were defined. Results of a survey of experts’ judgment on the effectiveness of the developed list of indicators generated 52 comments from 11 experts, which helped in refining and enhancing the list. The conceptual framework for assessing the sustainability of POU and POE systems represented a blueprint for building the decision support system. Decision logic and cognitive thinking was used to formulate the calculation of the 20 refined indicators. The Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), a recognized Multi-criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) tool, was employed to construct the structural hierarchy of sustainability indicators. Pairwise comparison was used to help in the analysis of indicators' relative importance and develop the indicators’ weights. A survey was designed to develop the relative weights of the indicators based on the average response of 19 stakeholders to a series of pairwise comparison questions pertaining to the relative importance of the indicators. Finally, the practical contribution of this research is the development of, for the first time, a new Decision Support System for Selecting Sustainable POU and POE Treatment Systems (D4SPOUTS) suitable for a particular water treatment case. The MCDA technique explained above is combined with designed screening rules, constraints, and case characteristics to be applied to a knowledgebase of POU and POE treatment systems incorporated in the DSS. The components of the DSS were built using Microsoft® Excel® and Visual Basic® for Applications. The quality of the DSS and aspects of its usability, applicability, and sensitivity analysis are demonstrated through a hypothetical case study for lead removal from drinking water. This research is expected to assist water purveyors, consultants, and other stakeholders in selecting sustainable and cost effective POU and POE treatment systems.