Synthetic cells and tissues engineered from the bottom-up using non-living building blocks have many potential applications in medicine and biochemistry. Nonetheless, the applications of these synthetic cells and tissues remain limited by virtue of the challenging, costly, and uncontrollable methodologies available for their construction. Droplet microfluidic techniques, which are powerful analytical tools that can be used for the accurate and precise control over micro-sized droplets, offer potential solutions to these problems. The development of these droplet microfluidic platforms is a burgeoning and challenging field, with room for many impactful innovations. In the following dissertation, I first show the development of two different droplet microfluidic platform for the generation of two variations of synthetic cells: the first from polymeric-based building blocks and the second from biomimetic lipid-based building blocks. I then use the former of these platforms for the bottom-up generation of functional synthetic tissues (also known as prototissues). Using these techniques, I am able to elicit previously elusive structural and behavioral information. These methods contribute towards the creation of superior mimics of sophisticated life-like structures as well as a better understanding of how bespoke microfluidic platforms can be engineered to yield reliable and reproducible results. I have shown that microfluidic technologies are an invaluable tool for the creation and study of life-like systems and that these synthetic cells and tissues open up new avenues for research into multidisciplinary applications. / Graduate / 2023-06-07

Eczema or dermatitis is the most common dermatological condition accounting for one-third of all diagnoses in the total population surveyed in South Africa. The prevalence of seborrhoeic dermatitis, extreme photodermatitis and severe psoriasis has increased markedly over the last decade and this increase may be ascribed to the HIV epidemic, first diagnosed in South Africa in 1982. Potent innovator corticosteroids, such as clobetasol 17-propionate (CP) that are used to treat skin disorders, are expensive and there is therefore a need for the production of generic topical corticosteroid products. Formulation and manufacturing processes can be challenging aspects for formulation scientists to produce a robust product that will elicit an appropriate and desirable pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic profile. Laboratory scale CP creams were manufactured using different concentrations of Gelot® 64 and propylene glycol in order to establish a composition that would produce a formulation, with similar physical and chemical characteristics and in vitro release profile as an innovator product, Dermovate®. These formulations were assessed in terms of their viscosity, spreadability, pH, content uniformity and in vitro release characteristics using a Franz diffusion cell apparatus. A formulation containing 3% w/w Gelot® 64 and 46% v/v propylene glycol (CPLS-02) was found to exhibit similar viscosity and spreadability characteristics and released CP in a manner similar to Dermovate®. The mechanism of drug release was evaluated using mathematical models such as zero order, first order and Higuchi models. In addition, the in vitro release profiles were characterised by use of difference (f1) and similarity (f2 and Sd) factors. A scale-up formulation with the same % w/w composition as the laboratory scale was also investigated following manufacture using a Wintech® cream/ointment mixer. A Central Composite Design approach was used to investigate the effect of process variables on the performance of the scale-up cream formulations. The homogenisation speed, anchor speed, homogenisation time and cooling time were the process variables investigated. Thirty scale-up batches were manufactured and analysed in terms of their viscosity, spreadability, pH, % drug content and cumulative % drug released per unit area over 72 hours. Model fitting using Design-Expert® software was undertaken and revealed that a correlation between the process variables and the cream responses was most suitably described by quadratic polynomial relationships. The homogenisation speed had the most significant effect on the quality of the scale-up formulations, whereas the anchor speed had a secondary effect on the measured responses, for the formulations investigated. The qualitative interpretation and statistical analysis of the in vitro release data from the scale-up formulations using ANOVA and the f1, f2 and Sd factors revealed that one scale-up batch (CPSU-04), for which the process variables were a homogenisation speed of 1900 rpm, an anchor speed of 35 rpm, a homogenisation time of 100 minutes and a cooling time of 100 minutes, released CP at a similar rate and extent to Dermovate®. A diffusion-controlled mechanism appeared to be predominant in these formulations. A human skin blanching study, using both visual and chromameter assessments, was performed to establish whether batch CPSU-04 was bioequivalent to Dermovate®. The bioequivalence of the selected scale-up formulation to Dermovate® was confirmed, following the calculation of a 90% CI.

Em 1968, um composto do tipo 5-nitroimidazol, o megazol, foi sintetizado por Berkelhammer e Asato e demonstrou largo espectro de ação biológica. Em 1980, pesquisadores brasileiros determinaram excelente atividade desta molécula contra o Tripanosoma cruzi, em ratos, por via oral. Constam da literatura quatro rotas para a obtenção deste fármaco, que podem ser otimizadas no tocante ao aumento da produtividade e minimização dos riscos. A nova rota, ora proposta, é uma alternativa para a síntese do megazol, realizada somente em três etapas de fácil execução, abrindo caminho para obtenção de seus análogos estruturais. / In 1968, Berkelhammer and Asato synthesized a compound of the 5-nitroimidazole group, called megazol. This compound demonstrated a high biological activity. In 1980, brazilian researchers tested the megazol in mices and they discovered an excellent activity of this against Chagas\' disease. There are four routes to synthesize these compound indicated in the literature. Actually, these routes can be optimized to achieve the yield and minimization of the risks involved in the unitary processo The new route proposed is an alternative to obtain the megazol in only three stages of easy perform. This method makes way to structural analogues of this drug.

A growing number of therapeutic compounds currently being developed by pharmaceutical companies are poorly water soluble leading to limited and/or erratic bioavailability. The rate limiting step for absorption of these compounds is dependent on the dissolution and apparent solubility. Nanoparticle formation has been exploited as a method to improve the bioavailability of these poorly water soluble active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) by increasing the dissolution rates and apparent solubilities. The influence of hydrophilic stabilizers in powder compositions prepared by the spray freezing into liquid (SFL) process using either an emulsion feed dispersion or organic co-solvent feed solutions on enhancing the wetting and dissolution properties of nanostructured aggregates containing itraconazole (ITZ). Subsequently, an in vivo pharmacokinetic study was conducted comparing the SFL processed powder to commercial Sporanox®. An ultra-rapid freezing (URF) technology has been developed to produce high surface area powders composed of solid solutions of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) and a polymer stabilizer. Rapid freezing technologies are known to enhance the physico-chemical properties of APIs and thus increase bioavailability. However, the effect of the different freezing geometries and rates in the URF process are unknown. Therefore, this study investigated how solvent properties and thin film geometry of the droplet affect the freezing rate and thus the physico-chemical properties of micronized danazol powders. Amorphous nanoparticles containing tacrolimus (TAC) in a solid dispersion were prepared using the Ultra-rapid Freezing (URF) process. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of combinations of polymeric stabilizers on the maximum degree and extent of supersaturation of TAC. An attempt to establish if an in vitro-in vivo correlation exists between supersaturation and improved pharmacokinetic parameters for orally dosed TAC was performed. Enteric solid dispersions could overcome limitations of premature precipitation of supersaturated solutions by 1.) delaying dissolution until the compound enters the intestines where absorption is favored and 2.) increasing the apparent solubility at higher pH to increase the driving force for absorption. The objective of the study is to investigate the influence of composition parameters including drug:polymer ratio and polymer type, and particle structure of enteric solid dispersions on the release of ITZ. / text

Em 1968, um composto do tipo 5-nitroimidazol, o megazol, foi sintetizado por Berkelhammer e Asato e demonstrou largo espectro de ação biológica. Em 1980, pesquisadores brasileiros determinaram excelente atividade desta molécula contra o Tripanosoma cruzi, em ratos, por via oral. Constam da literatura quatro rotas para a obtenção deste fármaco, que podem ser otimizadas no tocante ao aumento da produtividade e minimização dos riscos. A nova rota, ora proposta, é uma alternativa para a síntese do megazol, realizada somente em três etapas de fácil execução, abrindo caminho para obtenção de seus análogos estruturais. / In 1968, Berkelhammer and Asato synthesized a compound of the 5-nitroimidazole group, called megazol. This compound demonstrated a high biological activity. In 1980, brazilian researchers tested the megazol in mices and they discovered an excellent activity of this against Chagas\' disease. There are four routes to synthesize these compound indicated in the literature. Actually, these routes can be optimized to achieve the yield and minimization of the risks involved in the unitary processo The new route proposed is an alternative to obtain the megazol in only three stages of easy perform. This method makes way to structural analogues of this drug.

Este trabalho tem como principal objetivo contribuir para o desenvolvimento de novos potenciais metalofármacos de rutênio. Nele são descritas a síntese, a caracterização e a avaliação da ação antiproliferativa de alguns complexos de dirutênio (II,III) com os fármacos antiinflamatórios não-esteróides (AINEs): ibuprofeno (ibp), ácido acetilsalicílico (aas), naproxeno (npx) e indometacina (ind) e também com o ácido γ-linolênico (lin), sobre células cancerígenas. Os compostos obtidos foram caracterizados por análise elementar, espectroscopia de absorção eletrônica, medidas de susceptibilidade magnética, espectroscopia vibracional FTIR e Raman, difratometria de raios X de pó, medidas de condutividade molar e análise térmica (TG, OTAe OSC). Todos os complexos sintetizados apresentam estrutura em gaiola, com os carboxilatos derivados dos fármacos AINEs coordenados à unidade dimetálica Ru2( (II,III), em ponte equatorial, estabilizando assim a ligação direta rutênio-rutênio. As posições axiais são ocupadas por íons cloreto, no caso dos complexos [Ru2(O2(CR)4(Cl] (O2(CR = ibp, aas, npx ou ind), ou por moléculas de água, nas espécies do tipo [Ru2(O2(CR)4(H2O)2]PF6(O2CR =npx e ind). Ensaios biológicos demonstraram que os compostos [Ru2(ibp) 4Cl]•½H2O e [Ru2(npx)4(H2O)2]PF6 apresentam ação antiproliferativa sobre células de glioma de rato C6 in vitro, dependendo do tempo de exposição do meio celular ao complexo. O complexo [Ru2 (lin)4Cl] também apresenta efeito sobre a proliferação de células C6; entretanto, nesse caso, efeitos significativos são observaçlos já nas primeiras 24 h de exposição. Estudos mostraram que as bases adenina e adenosina reagem com o complexo [Ru2(OAc)4(H2O)2]PF6 sem que ocorra quebra da estrutura em gaiola. As bases nitrogenadas substituem axialmente as moléculas de água, formando pontes axiais entre duas unidades de dirutênio (II,III) no estado sólido. / The main objective of this work is to make a contribution to the development of new ruthenium metallodrugs. Synthesis, characterization and evaluation of antiproliferative action in tumor cells of some diruthenium(II,III) complexes with Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, acetylsalicylic acid, naproxen, indomethacin and also γ-linolenic acid are described. The obtained compounds were characterized by elemental analysis, electronic absorption spectroscopy, magnetic susceptibility, FTIR and Raman vibrational spectroscopy, x-ray powder diffraction, molar conductivity and thermal analysis (TG, DTA and DSC). All complexes exhibit a paddlewheel structure with the NSAID carboxylates coordinated to the metal ions bridging two Ru2(II,III) dimetal units and stabilizing the ruthenium-ruthenium bound. The axial positions are occupied by chloride ions for [Ru2(O2CR)4Cl] (O2CR = ibp, aas, npx, ind), or by water molecules for [Ru4(O2CR) 4(H2O) 2]PF6(O2CR = npx, ind) complexes. Biologic assays in vitro show that antiproliferative action in C6 rat cells depends on the time of exposing the cell culture to [Ru2(ibp)4Cl]•½H2O and [Ru2 (npx)4(H2O)2]PF6 complexes. The [Ru2(1in)4Cl] compound also exhibits proliferative changes in C6 rat cells, however, significant results are observed for the first 24 hours of treatment. Some results show that adenine and adenosine bases can react with [Ru2(OAc)4(H2O)2]PF6 without breakage of the cage structure. The bases substitute the axial water molecules forming axial bridges between diruthenium units in the solid state.

Este trabalho tem como principal objetivo contribuir para o desenvolvimento de novos potenciais metalofármacos de rutênio. Nele são descritas a síntese, a caracterização e a avaliação da ação antiproliferativa de alguns complexos de dirutênio (II,III) com os fármacos antiinflamatórios não-esteróides (AINEs): ibuprofeno (ibp), ácido acetilsalicílico (aas), naproxeno (npx) e indometacina (ind) e também com o ácido γ-linolênico (lin), sobre células cancerígenas. Os compostos obtidos foram caracterizados por análise elementar, espectroscopia de absorção eletrônica, medidas de susceptibilidade magnética, espectroscopia vibracional FTIR e Raman, difratometria de raios X de pó, medidas de condutividade molar e análise térmica (TG, OTAe OSC). Todos os complexos sintetizados apresentam estrutura em gaiola, com os carboxilatos derivados dos fármacos AINEs coordenados à unidade dimetálica Ru2( (II,III), em ponte equatorial, estabilizando assim a ligação direta rutênio-rutênio. As posições axiais são ocupadas por íons cloreto, no caso dos complexos [Ru2(O2(CR)4(Cl] (O2(CR = ibp, aas, npx ou ind), ou por moléculas de água, nas espécies do tipo [Ru2(O2(CR)4(H2O)2]PF6(O2CR =npx e ind). Ensaios biológicos demonstraram que os compostos [Ru2(ibp) 4Cl]•½H2O e [Ru2(npx)4(H2O)2]PF6 apresentam ação antiproliferativa sobre células de glioma de rato C6 in vitro, dependendo do tempo de exposição do meio celular ao complexo. O complexo [Ru2 (lin)4Cl] também apresenta efeito sobre a proliferação de células C6; entretanto, nesse caso, efeitos significativos são observaçlos já nas primeiras 24 h de exposição. Estudos mostraram que as bases adenina e adenosina reagem com o complexo [Ru2(OAc)4(H2O)2]PF6 sem que ocorra quebra da estrutura em gaiola. As bases nitrogenadas substituem axialmente as moléculas de água, formando pontes axiais entre duas unidades de dirutênio (II,III) no estado sólido. / The main objective of this work is to make a contribution to the development of new ruthenium metallodrugs. Synthesis, characterization and evaluation of antiproliferative action in tumor cells of some diruthenium(II,III) complexes with Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, acetylsalicylic acid, naproxen, indomethacin and also γ-linolenic acid are described. The obtained compounds were characterized by elemental analysis, electronic absorption spectroscopy, magnetic susceptibility, FTIR and Raman vibrational spectroscopy, x-ray powder diffraction, molar conductivity and thermal analysis (TG, DTA and DSC). All complexes exhibit a paddlewheel structure with the NSAID carboxylates coordinated to the metal ions bridging two Ru2(II,III) dimetal units and stabilizing the ruthenium-ruthenium bound. The axial positions are occupied by chloride ions for [Ru2(O2CR)4Cl] (O2CR = ibp, aas, npx, ind), or by water molecules for [Ru4(O2CR) 4(H2O) 2]PF6(O2CR = npx, ind) complexes. Biologic assays in vitro show that antiproliferative action in C6 rat cells depends on the time of exposing the cell culture to [Ru2(ibp)4Cl]•½H2O and [Ru2 (npx)4(H2O)2]PF6 complexes. The [Ru2(1in)4Cl] compound also exhibits proliferative changes in C6 rat cells, however, significant results are observed for the first 24 hours of treatment. Some results show that adenine and adenosine bases can react with [Ru2(OAc)4(H2O)2]PF6 without breakage of the cage structure. The bases substitute the axial water molecules forming axial bridges between diruthenium units in the solid state.