abstract: A model of the effects of early adolescents' temperament (negative emotionality and inhibitory control) and threat appraisals on resulting status in the bullying dynamic was examined. Specifically, I examined the hypothesis that negative emotionality and passive victim versus bully-victim status would be mediated by threat appraisals, and that mediated effect would be moderated by levels of inhibitory control. The study used a sample of 56 early adolescents ages 7–16. Temperament characteristics were measured using the EATQ–R (Capaldi & Rothbart, 1992). Threat appraisals were assessed using items from Hunter, Boyle, and Warden (2004). Bullying and victimization were measured using items created for this study and additional cyber bullying items (Smith, Mahdavi, Carvalho, & Tippett, 2006). A multinomial logistic regression and test of moderated mediation were analyzed to examine the model (Hayes, 2012). Higher levels of negative emotionality were correlated with being a victim of bullying. The moderated mediation model was not statistically significant, however the direction of the patterns fit the hypotheses. Future directions and limitations are discussed. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Psychology 2012

Men's adherence to restrictive emotionality, a traditional masculine norm, has frequently been linked to higher rates of psychological distress and other negative mental health outcomes. Masculinity researchers have recently begun to study how the effects associated with restrictive emotionality might be related to how men regulate their emotions. Limited findings suggest that restrictive emotionality may be related to non-acceptance of emotion. However, these studies have not examined how acceptance affects the relationship between restrictive emotionality and distress. Further, no published studies have attempted to manipulate levels of men's emotional acceptance in service of reducing restrictive emotionality and distress. The current study tested whether a brief psychoeducational intervention could promote acceptance in men and thus reduce their restrictive emotionality and distress. Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental condition teaching emotional acceptance, or a control condition teaching time management skills. Both conditions consisted of audio recordings that described how these approaches benefit coping with stressful situations, as well as prompts asking participants to write about how this information could relate to their lives. The study also investigated baseline interrelationships between restrictive emotionality, fear of emotion, emotional acceptance, and distress using pretest self-report data. Moderation analyses were conducted to determine whether emotional acceptance might serve as a buffer against the effects of restrictive emotionality on psychological distress. Self-report measures at pretest and at one-week follow-up assessed acceptance, fear of emotion, restrictive emotionality, emotional non-acceptance, and distress. Performance-based measures, including a semantic decision task and a scrambled sentences test, were also used to assess for differences by condition. Contrary to hypotheses, no effect of condition was evident in analyses of self-report or performance-based measures. Self-report data demonstrated a main effect of time, such that distress, emotional non-acceptance, and fear of emotion decreased across conditions from pretest to follow up, while acceptance increased. Restrictive emotionality scores remained unchanged. As predicted, significant intercorrelations were found among fear of emotion, emotional non-acceptance, distress, and emotional acceptance with the exception of restrictive emotionality, which was associated only with greater distress. Finally, the hypothesis that emotional acceptance would moderate the relationship between restrictive emotionality and psychological distress was not supported. / text

O trabalho teve como objetivo compreender o relacionamento entre a égua e o potro e a influência deste sobre o comportamento social e temperamento do potro, a partir do décimo primeiro dia de vida até após o processo de desmama do potro. Oito díades de éguas e potros da raça Mangalarga Marchador provenientes de um criatório situado na cidade de Amparo/SP foram avaliadas durante três etapas distintas. A primeira foi realizada para caracterizar o comportamento social do grupo de equinos e o relacionamento entre égua e potro durante os três períodos de desenvolvimento do potro (dependência, socialização e independência). Nessa etapa foram registradas: as interações agonísticas das éguas; episódios de mamada dos potros (tentativas e mamadas) e para o par égua e potro foram anotados os comportamentos afiliativos e a relação espacial. Ao final dessa etapa os potros foram classificados em dependentes e independentes e as éguas foram divididas de acordo com sua hierarquia. A segunda etapa constitui-se da avaliação das atividades e relação espacial dos potros durante o processo de desmama, para a caracterização do estresse dos potros. Na terceira etapa a relação social dos potros foi observada na ausência de suas mães, através do registro das interações e da relação espacial dos potros. Durante as três etapas foram aplicados quatro testes de avaliação dos aspectos do temperamento dos animais: teste de reatividade durante o manejo de escovação para a avaliação da reatividade ao manejo; teste de arena para avaliar a emotividade ao isolamento; teste de reatividade perante humano desconhecido e ativo para avaliar a reatividade ao humano; e teste da presença de estímulo sonoro desconhecido para avaliação da emotividade ao estímulo desconhecido. A hierarquia e a experiência da mãe interferiam no cuidado materno de aleitamento (P<0,05), entretanto, não influenciaram o cuidado de proteção (P>0,05). A frequência de permanência dos potros com sua mãe na distância de até 1 metro diminuiu ao longo dos períodos (P<0,05). As éguas não modificaram a frequência dos comportamentos afiliativos com seus potros ao longo dos períodos (P>0,05). As maiores frequências de comportamentos afiliativos dos potros com suas mães foram durante os períodos iniciais do desenvolvimento do potro (dependência e socialização, P<0,05). Potros dependentes apresentaram maior frequência e menor duração das mamadas quando comparado à frequência e duração dos potros independentes (P<0,05). A reatividade ao manejo e a emotividade ao isolamento dos potros foram maiores nos períodos da dependência, da socialização e durante a desmama (P<0,05). A reatividade ao humano e emotividade ao desconhecido apresentaram a tendência de diminuir ao longo dos períodos observados (P<0,05). Os potros dependentes apresentaram maior emotividade ao desconhecido e ao isolamento (P<0,05), além de maior estresse durante a desmama, quando comparado aos potros independentes. Todos os potros normalizaram suas atividades no decorrer do processo da desmama. Na ausência das mães os potros independentes foram os que iniciaram a maioria das interações entre os animais (P<0,05). O relacionamento entre a égua e o potro foi modificado devido às características maternas de hierarquia e experiência, além do nível de independência do potro e do seu temperamento. / The study aimed to understand the relationship between the mare and the foal and the influence of this on the social behavior and foal\'s temperament from the eleventh day of life until after the foal weaning process. Eight dyads of mares and foals Mangalarga Marchador from a farm situated in the city of Amparo/Brazil were evaluated during three different stages. The first stage was performed to characterize the social behavior of horses group and the relationship between mare and foal during the three foal developmental periods (dependency, socialization and independence). At the first stage the aggressive interactions of the mares were registered; episodes of sucking of foals (attempt and bout of sucking); and the pair mare and foal were noted the affiliative behaviors and spatial relationship. At the end of this stage the foals were classified as dependent and independent and mares were divided according to their hierarchy. In the second step we evaluated the activities and spatial relationship of foals during the weaning process, to characterize the stress of foals during this process. In the third stage the social relationship of foals was observed in the absence of their mothers, through the recording of interactions and the spatial relationship of the foals. During the three stages were applied four tests for assessing aspects of animal temper: reactivity test during brushing for evaluation of reactivity handling; arena test to evaluate the emotionality isolation; human reactivity test unknown and active to assess the reactivity to human; and test for the presence of unknown sound stimulus to evaluate the emotionality of the unknown stimulus. The hierarchy and the mother\'s experience interferes with maternal care of lactation (P<0.05), but did not influence the protective care (P>0.05). The frequency of stay of foals with mother at a distance of up to 1 meter decreased over the period (P<0.05). The mares do not change the frequency of affiliative behaviors with their foals (P>0.05). The highest frequency of affiliative behaviors foals with their mothers were during the early periods foal development (dependency and socialization; P<0.05). The dependent foals presented a higher frequency and shorter duration of sucking bouts when compared to the frequency and duration of foals independent (P<0.05). The reactivity handling and emotionality isolation of foals were higher in dependency periods, socialization and during weaning (P<0.05). The reactivity of human and emotionality of the unknown showed a tendency to decrease over the observed periods (P<0.05). The dependent foals showed larger emotionality to the unknown and isolation (P<0.05). The dependent foals showed greater emotionality to the unknown and isolation (P<0.05) as well as increased stress during weaning when compared to independent foals. All foals normalized its activities during the weaning process. After separation independent foals were those who started most interactions between animals (P<0.05). The relationship between the mare and the foal was modified due to maternal characteristics hierarchy and experience, beyond the temperament of foal and independence level of the foal.

[pt] A ocorrência de experiências infantis negativas (como o abuso, a negligência e o estabelecimento de vínculos inseguros) tem sido relacionada à alteração da emocionalidade, podendo ser compreendida como integrante para a etiologia multifatorial dos transtornos psicológicos. O impacto das experiências precoces no comportamento adulto encontra espaço na compreensão das características do desenvolvimento do SNC (Sistema Nervoso Central) e no conceito de neuroplasticidade, capacidade neural de se moldar de acordo com as influências do ambiente. De modo consistente, são encontrados trabalhos que apontam haver correlação entre estresse precoce e o desenvolvimento de psicopatologias. Este trabalho visa compreender a influência das experiências da infância no comportamento emocional, e justifica-se na constatação de que esta compreensão pode auxiliar a melhor entender o adoecimento mental e a desenvolver estratégias de avaliação e tratamento mais adaptadas e eficazes. Para tanto, foram realizados uma extensa revisão bibliográfica sobre o tema e a construção e avaliação de um modelo animal que pudesse mimetizar os efeitos das experiências precoces na emocionalidade. O levantamento da literatura traz dados consistentes sobre estes efeitos biocomportamentais, frequentemente valendo-se, para isto, de modelos animais em neurociência afetiva. A pesquisa experimental visou mais especificamente avaliar se diferentes condições ambientais durante a lactação de animais são capazes de alterar sua resposta emocional no LCE (Labirinto em Cruz Elevado), paradigma de avaliação comportamental de emocionalidade. Foram aplicados os procedimentos de handling (manipulação) e separação materna nas três primeiras semanas pós-natais, tendo sido avaliados no LCE um total de 154 animais. Foram encontrados resultados consistentes para o procedimento de handling entre os diferentes grupos, entretanto o efeito parece não se estender aos animais adultos. Já o procedimento de separação materna utilizado não se mostrou capaz de alterar o comportamento emocional, dado que encontra reverberação na literatura, onde podem ser localizados resultados contraditórios. Foram pontos de limite para este trabalho o número grande de variáveis e o número pequeno de sujeitos por grupo experimental. Estudos mais detalhados e com paradigmas comportamentais diferentes dos aplicados podem ser de valia para aprofundar a discussão sobre os dados. Os resultados encontrados nesta pesquisa demonstram a grande complexidade da emocionalidade humana, que não pôde ser completamente modelada. São apresentadas perspectivas futuras sobre a investigação da etiologia de transtornos mentais levando-se em conta não somente aspectos ambientais, mas também os ligados à genética e a interação entre eles, atendidas pelo procedimento de crossfostering ou adoção cruzada. A relevância clínica da investigação das experiências infantis está em saber de que maneira elas alteram a emocionalidade, levando ao desenvolvimento de doenças mentais. Parece haver consenso entre os estudos em relação à desregulação do eixo HPA ser repetidamente documentada como uma consequência psicobiológica das experiências iniciais aversivas, tendo sido proposta como o potencial mediador neurobiológico dos efeitos de longo prazo das experiências emocionais negativas. / [en] The occurrence of adverse childhood experiences (such as abuse, neglect and bonding unsafe) has been related to the change in emotionality, may be understood as integral to the multifactorial etiology of psychological disorders. The impact of early experiences on adult behavior finds room to understand the characteristics of the development of the CNS (Central Nervous System) and the concept of neuroplasticity, neural capacity to mold according to environmental influences. Consistently, papers and research works show correlation between stress and early development of psychopathology. This work aims to understand the influence of childhood experiences in emotional behavior, and is justified in finding that this understanding can help to better comprehend mental illness and develop strategies for assessment and treatment more suitable and effective. To this end, held out an extensive literature review on the subject construction and evaluation of an animal model that could mimic the effects of early experiences on emotional behavior. The literature provides consistent data on these biobehavioral effects, often with the assistance, for this, of animal models in affective neuroscience. The experimental research was aimed specifically to assess whether different environmental conditions during the lactation of animals are able to change their emotional response in the EPM (Elevated Plus Maze), a behavioral assessment paradigm of emotionality. The procedures of handling and maternal separation in the first three postnatal weeks were applied and were evaluated in the EPM a total of 154 animals. Our findings with the procedure of handling were consistent between the different groups, but the effect seems to not be extend to adult animals. On the other hand, the maternal separation procedure used was not able to alter the emotional behavior, as found in the literature, where can be found contradictory results. Limitations of this work were the large number of variables and the small number of subjects per experimental group. More detailed studies and using behavioral paradigms that differ from those can be valuable for further discussion about the data. The findings of this study demonstrate the complexity of human emotionality, which could not be fully modeled. Future perspectives are presented on the investigation of the etiology of mental disorders taking into account not only environmental, but also those related to genetics and the interaction between them, attended by the procedure of cross-fostering. The clinical relevance of the research of childhood experiences is the knowledge about how they affect emotionality, leading to the development of mental illnesses. There seems to be consensus among studies regarding the deregulation of the HPA axis being repeatedly documented as a consequence of the initial experiences aversive psychobiological, having been proposed as a potential mediator of neurobiological long-term effects of negative emotional experiences.

The study of how personality traits relate to psychopathology has flourished in the past three decades, with strong evidence for systematic links between personality and psychological disorders. Great progress has been made in our understanding of the associations between broad traits and the mood and anxiety disorders (or internalizing disorders). In particular, it is clear that the broad trait neuroticism/negative emotionality (N/NE; stress reactivity and a tendency to experience negative emotions) is moderately to strongly associated with all of the internalizing disorders, both concurrently and longitudinally. However, researchers have noted the relative dearth of studies that examine associations with more narrow facet-level traits. The current study examined the relations of N/NE facets with six of the internalizing disorders (i.e., depression, GAD, PTSD, social anxiety, panic, and OCD). The above symptoms were expected to load on to two higher order factors (fear and distress). Based on pilot analyses, a five-factor model for N/NE was hypothesized, consisting of sadness, anxiety, angry hostility, mistrust, and dependency. In addition, stress vulnerability marked the shared variance among these facets. I also examined associations between the disorders and four clinical traits (i.e., anxiety sensitivity, experiential avoidance, perfectionism, and intolerance of uncertainty) that are related to N/NE. Finally, I analyzed the associations of the N/NE facets and clinical traits with heterogeneous symptom dimensions within PTSD and OCD. Self-report and clinical interview data were collected from a college student sample (N = 373) and a psychiatric outpatient sample (N = 252; an additional 44 patients completed self-report measures only), with multiple measures of each internalizing disorder and personality trait described above. Structural equation modeling was used to remove shared variance among the six disorders and among the traits, allowing for the examination of relations across the unique variances of each construct. The hypothesized N/NE model provided a good fit to the data in both samples, as did the hypothesized psychopathology structure in the patient sample. However, markers of depression, panic, PTSD, and GAD were indistinguishable in the student sample and were therefore collapsed into a single factor. The results of the current study delineated unique patterns of association for each of the internalizing symptoms (as well as symptom dimensions within OCD and PTSD) in reference to the N/NE facets and clinical traits, highlighting shared and specific trait contributors. There was also evidence that all four clinical traits (as well as their subscales) are not redundant with N/NE and are differentially associated with the internalizing psychopathology examined here. The results of the current study helped clarify personality-psychopathology relations within a large network of traits and symptoms, while also controlling for the extensive overlap among these constructs. As such, implications for taxonomy, differential assessment, and structural models in these domains are discussed. Future research should focus on expanding this model to other traits and disorders, utilizing other methods of assessment such as informant data, and striving to delineate underlying mediating factors that may account for the pattern of associations found between traits and symptoms in the current study.

Stereotypic behaviour is considered an indicator of compromised welfare. We have conducted studies to test the controversial hypothesis that stereotypic behaviour helps animals to cope with challenges. We proposed that animals that do not express stereotypies could be under more compromised welfare, than the ones showing the behaviour, when exposed to difficult situations. Rather than asking to the animal if stereotypies are indicating good welfare, we assessed the effects on foetal programming. This study investigated the outcomes of stereotypies measured in sows (Sus scrofa) during gestation in shaping their offsprings phenotype measuring both behavioural and physiological indicators of welfare. Environmental enrichment is an efficient protocol, acting in the causal factors of stereotypies, such as motivational systems, to reduce repetitive, invariant behavioural patterns, defined as stereotypies. We demonstrated that stereotypies in pregnant sows are related with a reduction in fear indicators in their offspring. Then, we showed that environmental enrichment, in the last third of gestation, improved the welfare of sows and also the welfare in their offspring. Comparing the brain of the offspring of sows kept in enriched and non-enriched environments and comparing non-enriched sows performing stereotypies with non-enriched sows not showing stereotypies, we identified eight genes related with neuroplasticity and psychiatric diseases, which were differentially methylated. The main contribution of this study is that maternal stereotypic behaviour during gestation decreases fear indicators and alters the neuroepigenome of the limbic system of the offspring. As far as we know, this is the first evidence showing that stereotypies expressed by the mother during gestation did affect offsprings emotionality, in which the mechanism were epigenetic changes in the brain. / O comportamento estereotipado é considerado um indicador de comprometimento do bemestar. Nós conduzimos estudos para testar a controversa hipótese de que o comportamento estereotipado ajuda os animais a lidar com desafios. Propusemos que animais que não expressam estereotipias possam estar sob um bem-estar mais comprometido do que aqueles que demonstram o comportamento, quando expostos a situações difíceis. Ao invés de perguntar ao animal se as estereotipias estão indicando um bem-estar adequado, avaliamos os efeitos na programação do feto. Este estudo investigou os resultados de estereotipias em fêmeas suínas (Sus scrofa) durante a gestação no fenótipo da prole, acessando indicadores comportamentais e fisiológicos. O enriquecimento ambiental é um protocolo eficiente, atuando nos fatores causais de estereotipias, como os sistemas motivacionais, para reduzir padrões comportamentais repetitivos e invariantes, definidos como estereotipias. Nós demonstramos que estereotipias em suínas prenhes estão relacionadas com uma redução nos indicadores de medo na prole. Em seguida, mostramos que o enriquecimento ambiental, no último terço da gestação, melhorou o bem-estar das porcas e também o bem-estar de seus filhos. Comparando o cérebro da prole de porcas mantidas em ambientes enriquecidos e não enriquecidos e comparando porcas não enriquecidas realizando estereotipias com porcas não enriquecidas sem estereotipias, foram identificados oito genes relacionados com a neuroplasticidade e doenças psiquiátricas, que foram diferencialmente metilados. A principal contribuição deste estudo é que o comportamento estereotipado materno durante a gestação diminui os indicadores de medo e altera o neuroepigenoma do sistema límbico da prole. Até onde sabemos, esta é a primeira evidência mostrando que estereotipias expressas pela mãe durante a gestação afetaram a emocionalidade da prole, na qual o mecanismo era uma mudança epigenética no cérebro.

The National Institute of Mental Health’s (NIMH) Research Domain Criteria (RDoC; Insel et al., 2010; Sanislow et al., 2010) were established in an effort to explore underlying dimensions that cut across many existing disorders as well as to provide an alternative to the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; APA, 2013). The present dissertation aimed to study one major component of the RDoC model, negative valence, as compared to other models hypothesized to be closely related, as well as its relationship to a key component of psychopathology, affective instability. Participants were adult community residents (N=90) currently in mental health treatment. Participants received self-report measures of RDoC negative valence, five-factor model (FFM) neuroticism, and DSM-5 Section 3 negative affectivity, along with measures of affective instability, borderline personality disorder, and social-occupational impairment. Through this investigation, a better understanding and potential expansion of this new model of diagnosis for clinicians and researchers is provided. In particular, it is suggested that RDoC negative valence is commensurate with FFM neuroticism and DSM-5 negative affectivity, and it would be beneficial if it was expanded to include affective instability.

This study examined links between antisocial behaviour, moral emotions (i.e., sympathy and guilt), and negative emotionality in an ethnically diverse sample of 4- and 8-year-old children (N = 79). Primary caregivers reported their children’s antisocial behaviour, sympathy, and negative emotionality through a questionnaire and across a 10-day span via daily diary entries (n = 474 records). In a semi-structured interview, children reported their sympathy levels and guilt feelings. Children with high guilt in harm contexts and low negative emotionality were rated as less antisocial in both questionnaire and diary reports. For children with low guilt in exclusion contexts, low sympathy ratings predicted higher questionnaire-reported antisocial behaviour. For children with high guilt in prosocial omission contexts, high sympathy ratings predicted lower diary-reported antisocial behaviour. Lastly, high sympathy ratings predicted lower questionnaire-reported antisocial behaviour for children with low negative emotionality.

This study examined links between antisocial behaviour, moral emotions (i.e., sympathy and guilt), and negative emotionality in an ethnically diverse sample of 4- and 8-year-old children (N = 79). Primary caregivers reported their children’s antisocial behaviour, sympathy, and negative emotionality through a questionnaire and across a 10-day span via daily diary entries (n = 474 records). In a semi-structured interview, children reported their sympathy levels and guilt feelings. Children with high guilt in harm contexts and low negative emotionality were rated as less antisocial in both questionnaire and diary reports. For children with low guilt in exclusion contexts, low sympathy ratings predicted higher questionnaire-reported antisocial behaviour. For children with high guilt in prosocial omission contexts, high sympathy ratings predicted lower diary-reported antisocial behaviour. Lastly, high sympathy ratings predicted lower questionnaire-reported antisocial behaviour for children with low negative emotionality.

This study aimed at investigating the role of hope and study skills in predicting test anxiety levels of female and male university students. The sample consisted of 442 students from four different undergraduate programs of Faculty of Education at Ege University. Turkish version of State Hope Scale (SHS, Snyder, 1996), Turkish form of Dispositional Hope Scale (DHS, Akman &amp / Korkut, 1993), Study Skills Scale (SSI, Y*ld*r*m, Do*anay &amp / T&uuml / rko*lu, 2000) and Turkish form of Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI, Albayrak-Kaymak,1985 / &Ouml / ner, 1986 / 1990 / &Ouml / ner &amp / Albayrak Kaymak, 1986) were used for data collection. Adaptation study of the SHS and validity and reliability studies of the SSI were also conducted as part of the study. For the purpose of investigating the role of hope and study skills in predicting worry and emotionality dimensions of test anxiety, four stepwise multiple regression analyses were conducted separately for the worry and emotionality subscales scores of females and males. SHS scores, DHS scores, Course Participation subscale scores and Effective Reading subscale scores appeared as significant predictors for the emotionality scores, whereas SHS scores, Course Participation subscale scores and Effective Reading subscale scores emerged as significant predictors of the worry scores for the female group. The State Hope Scale (SHS) scores, Preparation for Exams subscale score, the Dispositional Hope Scale Scores (DHS), and Listening Subscale scores predicted the emotionality scores of the male students, and the State Hope Scale (SHS) scores, Preparation for Exams subscale, the Dispositional Hope, Motivation subscale, Health and Nutrition subscale and Writing Subscale scores predicted the worry scores of the male students.