Like most developing countries, South Africa is characterised by high rates of unemployment in general and even more so among the youth and graduates. One solution to this unemployment problem is encouraging people to become entrepreneurs. Most findings reveal however that entrepreneurial activities among the youth in general and university graduates in particular are low. Since entrepreneurial intention is the main precursor of future entrepreneurial actions, a secondary research was undertaken in this study to discover which factors influence entrepreneurial intention in order to increase students’ future entrepreneurial behaviour. Various determinants of entrepreneurial intention were found in the literature, but none of the previous studies investigated the influence of happiness on entrepreneurial intention, despite the growing importance of research on happiness. Consequently, the primary objective of this study was to identify and empirically test the possible influence of various determinants of students’ Perceived happiness on their Entrepreneurial intention at a higher educational institution in South Africa. The comprehensive literature review that was undertaken revealed eleven independent variables that could potentially influence students’ Perceived happiness. These independent variables were regrouped under two main categories, namely sociodemographic factors and psychological factors. Socio-demographic factors included: Perception of wealth, Satisfaction with health, Perception of employment, Leisure, Social relationships and Religion. On the other hand, psychological factors included: Extroversion, Neuroticism, Optimism, Self-esteem and Goals achievement. The independent variables, the mediating variable (Perceived happiness), as well as the dependent variable (Entrepreneurial intention) were clearly defined and operationalised and a hypothesised model, suggesting the hypotheses between the variables was built. During the creation of the measuring instrument, items were sourced from both reliable and valid scales used in previous studies, as well as self-generated items. The respondents of this study were identified through the simple random sampling technique and an electronic questionnaire was sent to each one of them. In total, 806 usable questionnaires were returned and data was subjected to several statistical analyses. An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to assess the validity of the measuring instrument, whereas reliability was gauged by calculating Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. These two tests allowed the extraction of the dependent variable (Entrepreneurial intention), the mediating variable (Perceived happiness) and seven independent variables, namely Perception of wealth, Perception of employment, Leisure, Religion, Extroversion, Neuroticism and finally Goals achievement. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated in order to assess the degree of correlation or association that existed between the variables investigated in the present study. Multiple regressions analyses were used to test the influence of the independent variables on the mediating variable, whereas simple regression analysis was used to assess the influence of the mediating variable on the dependent variable. Additionally, a series of multiple regression analyses was conducted in order to verify the mediating effect of Perceived happiness between all the independent variables and Entrepreneurial intention. The following independent variables were identified as influencing the mediating variable Perceived happiness, namely: Perception of employment; Leisure; Religion; Extroversion; Neuroticism; and Goals achievement. The results of the series of multiple regression analyses revealed that Perceived happiness had a positive influence on Entrepreneurial intention. However, Perceived happiness did not mediate the relationships between the independent variables and Entrepreneurial intention. Thus, the following independent variables were identified as having a direct influence on the dependent variable Entrepreneurial intention, namely: Perception of wealth; Religion; Perception of employment; Extroversion; and Goals achievement. In order to investigate the influence of various demographic variables on the independent, the mediating and the dependent variables, an analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed. The demographic variables Gender, Population group, Year of study and Faculty had influences on the dependent variable, Entrepreneurial intention, whereas only Population group and Faculty had influences on the mediating variables, Perceived happiness. By empirically investigating the influence of students’ Perceived happiness on their Entrepreneurial intention, this study has expended the limits of knowledge on both happiness and entrepreneurial intention research. It has made a significant contribution towards understanding the factors influencing students’ Perceived happiness and their Entrepreneurial intention. In addition, practical suggestions and recommendations towards increasing students’ levels of Perceived happiness and aspirations to become entrepreneurs after completing their studies have been proposed to students, lecturers and university management.

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The purpose of the present research was to examine the behavioral and individual-differences characteristics of a key figure in the innovation process—the champion. The champion, also known as corporate entrepreneur (Kanter, 1982), and intrapreneur (Pinchot, 1985) is an individual who emerges informally in an organization to introduce and promote innovation. These individuals have been described as forceful, driven, energetic, and visionary and have been found to be critical players in the success of organizational innovation. The majority of research on the champion has not, however, been conducted with a focus on this key figure. Rather, the emphasis of much of the previous research has typically been on the process of innovation, with the champion acknowledged and discussed, but not featured or described in detail. Given the importance of the champion in promoting innovation, it would be desirable to conduct research in which this figure was the focus of attention. The three studies carried out as part of this research project were designed with this purpose in mind. Methods of individual-differences assessment were applied to the study of the champion. The present research began with a study of the champion’s behavior. Techniques from the act frequency approach (Buss & Craik, 1980) were used to develop a comprehensive behavioral profile of the champion in order to establish a structural model of championship. Acts describing championship were generated by panels of middle- and senior-level managers and these items were factor analyzed separately in two samples, involving over 600 managers from seven Western Canadian organizations. Ultimately, 10 first- and two second-order factors were identified and named by subject matter experts. Evidence was found for a heroic and a dark side to championship at the second order factor level. In Study 2, the focus turned to predictor measurement. Supervisory ratings of championship on the criterion dimensions identified in Study 1 were obtained for 174 middle- and senior-level managers. These same managers had been participants in a three-day Assessment Center in which they were administered: (a) cognitive ability tests, (b) personality inventories, (c) management simulations, and (d) a structured interview. Correlations computed between the Assessment Center measures, on the one hand, and the criterion dimensions on the other, led to the conclusion that the dark side of championship could be predicted, but that, unfortunately, the heroic side could not. On the basis of the Assessment Center scale correlations with the dark side, the champion was found to be: dominant, assertive, exhibitionistic, aggressive, independent, competitive, driven, impulsive, impatient, and likely to break rules and take risks. The results of Study 3 led to the development of a low-fidelity simulation, based on the behavioral consistency model (Wernimont & Campbell, 1968). This simulation, called the Management Practices Simulation (MPS), was administered to the Assessment Center participants involved in Study 2 and scores on the MPS were correlated with scores on the criterion dimensions from Study 1. Two higher-order MPS scales were found to correlate significantly with the two second-order criterion factor scales identified in Study 1. Moreover, the criterion-related validity of these scales surpassed that achieved with any component of the Assessment Center. The results of Studies 1, 2, and 3 indicate that championship is a multi dimensional construct that, at a higher-order level, can be described with reference to two orthogonal dimensions, labeled the dark and heroic side. Individuals can be ordered along a continuum on these dimensions and this scaling reflects meaningful differences in behavior. Psychological tests can be used to predict ratings of championship, at least those associated with the dark side. Finally, application of the behavioral consistency model to the development of a low-fidelity simulation, led to the creation of a new instrument—the Management Practices Simulation—whose scales correlated significantly and at a slightly higher-level with the criterion than any of the Assessment Center battery scales. / Arts, Faculty of / Psychology, Department of / Graduate

Along with the accumulation of evidence supporting the role of entrepreneurship in economic development (Acs & Armington, 2006; Kuratko, 2005, Reynolds, 2007), governments have persisted in encouraging people to become entrepreneurs (Acs & Stough, 2008; Brannback & Carsrud, 2008). These efforts have tried to reproduce the conditions under which entrepreneurship emerges. One of these conditions is to develop entrepreneurial skills among students and scientists (Fan & Foo, 2004). Entrepreneurship education within higher education has experienced a remarkable expansion in the last 20 years (Green, 2008). To develop entrepreneurial skills among students, scholars have proposed different teaching approaches. However, no clear relationship has been demonstrated between entrepreneurship education, learning outcomes, and business creation (Hostager & Decker, 1999). Despite policy makers demands for more accountability from educational institutions (Klimoski, 2007) and entrepreneurship instructors demands for consistency about what should be taught and how (Maidment, 2009), the appropriate content for entrepreneurship programs remains under constant discussion (Solomon, 2007). Entrepreneurship education is still in its infancy, professors propose diverse teaching goals and radically different teaching methods. This represents an obstacle to development of foundational and consistent curricula across the board (Cone, 2008). Entrepreneurship education is in need of a better conceptualization of the learning outcomes pursued in order to develop consistent curriculum. Many schools do not have enough qualified faculty to meet the growing student demand and a consistent curriculum is needed for faculty development. Entrepreneurship instructors and their teaching practices are of interest because they have a role in producing the entrepreneurs needed to grow the economy. This study was designed to understand instructors’ perspectives and actions related to their teaching. The sample studied consisted of eight college and university entrepreneurship instructors. Cases met predetermined criteria of importance followed maximum variation strategies. Results suggest that teaching content were consistent across participants while different teaching goals were identified: some instructors inspire and develop general skills of students while others envision the creation of a real business as the major outcome of their course. A relationship between methods reported by instructors and their disciplinary background, teaching perspective, and entrepreneurial experience was found.

L'entrepreneuriat rap définit-il une forme spécifique d'entrepreneuriat ? Non pas qu'il ne soit pas saisie d'opportunité, actualisation de traits, moyen d'avoir un emploi ou d'entreprendre soi. Mais il y a dans l'entrepreneuriat rap un imaginaire, des codes et pratiques, un sens à la pratique entrepreneuriale qui constitue une forme propre. Un récit autobiographique et de l'observation participante permettent de décrire de l'intérieur l'expérience d'être entrepreneur dans le rap, d'en comprendre le milieu, les épreuves, les manières, les valeurs. Nous suivons plusieurs tentatives entrepreneuriales et notamment la sortie d'un projet artistique.Entreprendre demande un long apprentissage du milieu, des manières d'être et le maintien notamment d'une street credibility. Pour que ces codes et manières prennent sens, nous nous tournons vers Castoriadis (1975), car il y a une imaginaire instituant particulièrement prégnant et partagé, celui de la naissance de la culture hip hop. Nous voyons ainsi l'importance de l'imaginaire dans l'entrepreneuriat, ce qui nous invite à réfléchir sur quel imaginaire instituant s'érige la société entrepreneuriale qui nous est prédite. Pourtant il serait réducteur de tout interpréter à l'aune d'un passé. Ce que le récit du terrain donne à penser est que l'entrepreneuriat rap apporte un style, une forme d'existence à laquelle les acteurs tiennent et s'y tiennent. Pensé comme un style, au sens fort que lui attribue Macé (2016), il définit un mode d'existence propre et qui est à comprendre et à prendre soin pour lui-même. Il est une distinction, définissant une manière d'être, digne et aimable. Il est aussi un chemin de formation, d'individuation. Il est une forme de vie, autrement dit un agencement de traits, la sédimentation d'une idée, d'une éthique, et imprègne de ce fait les relations à soi et au monde, une idée de la vie bonne (Ferrarese et Laugier, 2018).Ce que montre l'entrepreneuriat rap est que l'entrepreneuriat est une manière de vivre, un mode d'existence, un style auquel on tient parce qu'il permet de vivre dans une culture, selon une façon et des valeurs que l'on désire. L'entrepreneuriat fait partie de la culture hip hop et prend son sens à l'intérieur de cet univers. Aujourd'hui, la technologie numérique casse les codes et les manières. De nouvelles pratiques entrepreneuriales s'instituent à partir de l'imaginaire hip hop. Elles semblent de moins en moins spécifiques au secteur hip hop. Je me bats pour défendre mon style. D'autres préféreront regarder de nouvelles manières s'instaurer, mais seront-elles encore hip hop ? Donneront-elles encore l'envie d'y consacrer le tout de sa vie ? / Does rap entrepreneurship define a specific form of entrepreneurship? Not that it is not the seizure of opportunities, the actualisation of traits, the means to have an employment or to be entrepreneur of oneself. But there is in rap entrepreneurship an imaginary, codes and practices, a sense of entrepreneurial practice that constitutes a form of its own. An autobiographical account and participant observation allow us to describe from the inside the experience of being an entrepreneur in rap, to understand its environment, challenges, manners and values. We follow several entrepreneurial attempts and in particular the release of an artistic project.Entrepreneurship requires a long learning of the environment, ways of being and the maintenance of street credibility. For these codes and ways to make sense, we turn to Castoriadis (1975), because there is an imaginary that creates a particularly strong and shared identity, that of the birth of hiphop culture. We thus see the importance of the imaginary in entrepreneurship, which invites to reflect on which imaginary establishing the predicted entrepreneurial society. However, it would be simplistic to interpret everything in the light of a past. What the field narrative suggests is that rap entrepreneurship brings a style, a form of existence that actors value and stick to. Thought of as a style, in the strong sense attributed to it by Macé (2016), it defines a way of life of its own that is to be understood and cared for in itself. It is a distinction, defining a way of being, dignified and loveable. It is also a path of formation, of individuation. It is a form of life, in other words a combination of features, the sedimentation of an idea, an ethic, and thus permeates relationships to oneself and to the world, an idea of the good life (Ferrarese and Laugier, 2018).What rap entrepreneurship shows is that entrepreneurship is a way of life, a mode of existence, a style that we value because it allows us to live in a culture, according to a way and values that we desire. Entrepreneurship is part of the hiphop culture and makes sense within this universe. Today, digital technology is breaking codes and manners. New entrepreneurial practices are emerging from the hiphop imagination. They seem less and less specific to the hiphop sector. I fight to defend my style. Others may prefer to look at new ways to establish themselves, but will they still be hiphop? Will they still make you want to devote all of your life to it?

The purpose of this dissertation is to explore the contingencies that alter the link between entrepreneurial orientation (“EO”; a strategic posture characterized by behaviors and attitudes that display innovativeness, proactiveness, and risk-taking) and firm outcomes. While conceptual claims unite on the belief that firms largely benefit from emphasizing innovation through proactive and risky initiatives, the empirical findings on a positive link between EO and performance are inconclusive. As such, several scholars have explored the contingencies that illuminate the boundary conditions to EO, however, most of this research has focused on external contingencies, i.e. those connected to the environment, while internal contingencies, i.e. those connected to the firm, have been fairly disregarded. Not only will the industry and market play a significant role in a firm’s ability to effectively carry out their desired strategic initiatives, so too will firm characteristics, such as communication and culture, as these internal factors are directly related to the level of value created from strategic actions. Therefore, this dissertation is an attempt to further clarify the boundary conditions of EO by focusing on these firm specific attributes. Chapter two, titled “Family communication patterns and entrepreneurial orientation in family firms” exposes the impact of specific family communication patterns on the performance outcomes from an entrepreneurial orientation. This chapter contributes to the corporate entrepreneurship literature, by confining the positive effects of EO to certain firm specific characteristic, as well as to the family business literature by further demonstrating the heterogeneity between family firms. Thereafter, chapter three, titled “Entrepreneurial orientation, organizational culture, and firm performance: The importance of a balanced approach”, argues and tests the importance of organizational culture, as defined by the competing values framework, as a contingency variable of the EO-performance relationship. This empirical chapter exploits a configurational approach, using fuzzy set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (“fs/QCA”) to analyze the arrangements of different entrepreneurial orientation and organizational cultures that yield superior performance. Through this exploration, I advance research on the EO-performance relationship by integrating the firm’s corporate culture as a means of alleviating concerns with resistance by certain stakeholders to the ambiguity associated with entrepreneurial ventures. / Includes bibliography. / Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2020. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

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Thesis submitted for the fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,in the Department of Anthropology and Development Studies at the University of Zululand, 2005. / African migrant entrepreneurship is fast becoming an increasingly important part of discourses of African migration to South Africa. This field of study is new in South Africa, because African women’s transnational activities have been neglected until now in studies on African entrepreneurship in South Africa. As Ghanaian women in South Africa through their entrepreneurial activities provided the background through which this researcher has initiated a discursive space, it has paved the way for Ghanaian transnational entrepreneurship to become an intellectual field. It is hoped that this study will become a starting point from which African women’s cross-border engagements can be viewed. Interrogating entrepreneurship through ‘cultural lenses’, this study reveals that the drive to succeed entrepreneurially and the spirit of entrepreneurship lie within certain groups of people, since they are embedded in peoples’ culture. Thus Ghanaian women have a high propensity to be engaged in entrepreneurial activities, even when they are living ans working in other countries. This study hopes to demonstrate that a shared culture facilitates entrepreneurial performance. The thesis has explored how their identity as Ghanaians in South Africa promotes their ability to succeed. This is because in post-apartheid South Africa, being a Ghanaian woman is being interpreted by South African blacks as knowing how to dress hair professionally. The findings indicate that although being first generation migrants, these women have developed hybrid and cosmopolitan identities in the manner in which they carry out their entrepreneurial activities. This has been facilitated by the researcher’s attempt to locate the women’s entrepreneurial activities within a historical context of identity formation and the contemporary melange of their identity in South Africa. The evidence suggests that there exists a symbiotic relationship between being a Ghanaian woman in South Africa and the tendency to succeed entrepreneurially, especially in the field of hair dressing. Their ‘maniere de fait’ allows them to be defined as a group of successful entrepreneurs. These women are also desperate to succeed because they are expected to send remittances home to their families and friends and also to participate in community projects in Ghana. Success is primarily judged by the assets they have acquired back in Ghana and their ability to bring family members to join them in the diaspora. These Ghanaian women are succeeding in this sector because after the fall of apartheid, hair care has become a major indicator of modernity for black South African women. This entrepreneurial area that these women have gotten into is one that has considerable opportunities for growth because black women after apartheid are earning more money and they want to spend that money on their appearance. The best way to show that they are modern is by keeping up with the latest hairstyles. This research has demonstrated that Ghanaian women’s entrepreneurship is producing benefits for South Africa. Coming from a system of apartheid where black South African women were not given the opportunity of knowing how to dress hair in what seems like western fashion, Ghanaian women have brought in these hairdressing skills and transmitted them to South Africans. These skills are being used by these South Africans as a source of both social development and economic empowerment. By providing employment to some South Africans (who before their encounter with Ghanaians were unemployed because of lack of skills), they are not only transmitting skills but providing for the daily needs of entire families. This sort of contribution by Ghanaians to the economy of South Africa is rewarding and represents a sufficient opportunity for recognition by the South African government. The study also reveals that in transnationalism, gender becomes unimportant. While the opportunistic tendency of migrants is given ‘the front seat’, gender is given ‘the back seat’. Through the need to migrate and the opportunistic tendency of migrants, hairdressing has produced a distinct social place in which Ghanaian men have hijacked a cultural space which had been a female domain as they have become hairdressers in South Africa as well as Ghanaian women. This research has also shown that religion and entrepreneurship are ‘bedfellows’. This is demonstrated by the fact that Ghanaian women believe that Christianity lies in the shadows of their business activities. Therefore, they see their businesses as a way of carrying out God’s redemptive plan and as one of God’s divine plans for them which gives significance to what they do. These values have been transmitted through different structures like schools and churches in Ghana and forms part of the socialisation process for children. When people who come from Ghana grow up, it becomes difficult for them to distance themselves from these values.

Background The process of mainstreaming the informal sector into the formal sector in Kenya has been considered and evaluated from as early as the 1970 as a means of poverty reduction and job creation. Information available on mainstreaming from the formal sector and government in Kenya indicate that both these sectors appreciate the value of mainstreaming the informal sector, however both parties have been unable to successfully mainstream the informal sector into the formal sector more than 40 years on. The relationship between the three sectors has also been reviewed and both the formal and government sector are cognizant of the need to create an enabling environment that would foster the mainstreaming process through an appropriate legal and regulatory framework. Methods The study follows a case study approach underpinned by an interpretive foundation. An extensive published literature, secondary data on the informal sector and grey-literature search on mainstreaming was conducted between 2006 and 2010. Between 2007 and 2008 a survey was conducted a threepronged approach to allow independent surveys of the informal sector as represented by the three largest jua kali (Kiswahili words for 'hot sun' which signifies outdoor exposure characterising the informal sector trade) markets in Kenya, namely Gikomba, Kariobangi and Kawangware. The government institutions mandated with various responsibilities for the informal sector as represented by blue chip companies on the Nairobi Stock Exchange (NSE), today known as The Nairobi Securities Exchange and the government sector represents the formal sector. Stringent criteria were applied to select the sample data where random sampling was used for the informal sector in the three named markets. Survey sample size for the informal sector was 539. The survey was conducted between 2007-2008. The survey for the selected blue chip companies was conducted in 2008. The findings from the survey precipitated the need to conduct a survey within the government sector, specifically with the government bodies and ministries with the mandate to facilitate the development of the jua kali sector. Face to face interviews using open-ended questionnaires was used to collect the data and identify opportunities for mainstreaming and integration amongst the three sectors. The effects of this association was interrogated and evaluated in order to identify opportunities that can establish a sustainable and long-term mainstreaming process for the informal sector in Kenya.