This thesis addresses the issue of cataloguing traditional earthen architecture. It proposes a methodology that will permit the systematic collection and analysis of objective and quantifiable data relating to historic earthen, or cob, buildings in a parish in mid Devon. The brief given for this project requhes a multi-disciplinary approach to be taken, one that considers the topographical surroundings and the historic context of the buildings as well as the architectural characteristics. A triangular concept is expounded, with the three elements providing a sound basis for the development of an holistic methodology for creating an earthen building inventory. To comply with the requirements of the brief, a comprehensive review of a wide range of relevant literature is described. Historic and current literature on the use of earth as a constructional material is considered, as well as literature on landscape history and historic documentation. The rationale is that a broad based understanding of the key elements will guide the selection of data for inclusion in the proposed inventory database. Data included in existing methodologies, devised for inventorying historic buildings, is assessed, and the necessity to develop a methodology to manage cob buildings is evaluated. The selection of the study area, the parish of Sandford, in which to demonstrate the proposed methodology, and the collection of the descriptive and the spatial data relating to the cob buildings is explained in detail. The use of a relational database, linked to a Geographical Information System, to collate the collected data and the results achieved fi"om analysis is fiilly described and discussed. The potential use of the methodology as a powerfiil conservation tool, indicated by the results of case studies undertaken, is also considered. The conclusions drawn are that the developed methodology represents the first systematic study on cob buildings inDevon, and that the important results achieved, and discoveries made, present a distinct and significant contribution to the current knowledge of cob buildings in mid Devon.

Earthen architecture is a widespread phenomenon, both in the present day and the past. It is one of the most impressive expressions of the human ability to create a unique built environment from modest natural resources. Archaeological research has shown that mud brick manufacturing techniques can inform on community practices in relation to architecture. New geoarchaeological and microarchaeological approaches provide information on the source of raw materials in conjunction with the mode of manufacture and construction. The aim of this study is to investigate Minoan earthen architecture using mud bricks as an integral part of material culture in order to reconstruct the technological process of mud brick manufacture and to provide fresh insights about architectural craft specialisation in Bronze Age Crete. In order to fulfil this goal, more than 10,000 mud bricks are studied both macroscopically, by investigating broad trends in manufacture and construction form, and microscopically, by considering the finer details of raw material procurement and building performance through XRF, XRD and thin section petrography. This research places the geoarchaeological analysis of mud brick architecture within a specific multidisciplinary theoretical framework that combines archaeological data, architectural analysis and ethnoarchaeology. The analyses clarify how raw materials were selected and used within and between buildings. They also shed light on broader temporal changes, such as increasing technological sophistication, the type of labour force, if centrally organised or household based, and its impact on architecture. Earthen building forms and materials are the result of assimilation between the natural and built environment. Therefore the exploitation of specific raw materials sheds light on community strategies of adaptation to natural resources and their transformation into material culture. Research results indicate that mud brick manufacture was a standardised activity during the Minoan period with evidence of craft specialisation in raw source material selection, production and construction.

La construction en terre devient un sujet d’actualité pour l’architecture contemporaine occidentale. En revanche, au Mali, le matériau terre est aujourd’hui délaissé. Ce paradoxe invite à porter notre attention sur le territoire malien, afin d’apprendre du terrain les implications du matériau terre, notamment à l’échelle urbaine. Au Mali, la ville en terre est aujourd’hui essentiellement synonyme de patrimoine figé. Il existe pourtant un secteur urbain bien vivant : l’urbanisation informelle, qui, stimulée par les énergies de survie, génère une dynamique spatiale spécifique. C’est à partir de cette réflexion générale que l’étude s’est resserrée sur un petit quartier informel essentiellement construit par des pêcheurs Bozo de la ville de Bamako, capitale du Mali. Le filtre employé pour analyser le terrain utilise la triade d’Henri Lefebvre : Temps, Espace, Energie. La posture du narrateur consiste ici à profiter du regard décalé du voyageur pour dévoiler ce qui renvoie à des questions universelles. Le statut d’étranger permet, en effet, de voir la réalité du terrain informel sous un jour nouveau. L’écriture opère ici comme un révélateur du terrain, elle élabore un « point de vue » qui modifie en profondeur les représentations urbaines. L’essence de cette recherche porte sur la mise en lumière d’une logique urbaine enfouie et dissimulée dans l’espace informel. Ce travail consiste à monter en théorie des processus qui font émerger une culture constructive et urbaine particulière au contexte du quartier. L’enseignement ainsi issu du terrain suggère un potentiel d’exploitation sur le lieu lui-même (valorisation), et sur d’autres contextes (déterritorialisation). / Earth construction is becoming a popular topic in Western architecture, yet in the context of traditional Malian construction techniques earth has largely been abandoned. This paradox asks us to turn our attention to the reality on the ground in West Africa, in order to understand the implications of using earth as a building material, especially on an urban scale. Today the earthen city is essentially synonymous with cultural heritage, but there is one place where it is alive and well— informal urbanization. This sector is stimulated by the necessities of survival, which generate remarkable spatial dynamics. From this general observation, this study was narrowed to a small informal fishing district in the city of Bamako. The ultimate purpose of this research is to highlight an urban logic buried and hidden in informal space. This work consists in writing a theory of informal urbanization that is contextually and culturally specific, according to a "bottom-up" principle. The narrator takes advantage of the peculiar perspective of the traveler in order to shed light on more universal questions. Indeed, the position of the stranger allows us to see the reality of informal spaces in a new light. The act of writing makes explicit certain processes that animate the site; it develops a "point of view" that fundamentally changes urban representations. Lessons learned as well as derived from the field pave the way for certain vernacular principles to be reused on site. At the same time, such a vernacular theory allows us to transfer these principles to other sites by means of deterritorialization.

Très présents sur les sites archéologiques, les vestiges d’architecture de terre suscitent un intérêt grandissant, pour la communauté scientifique, pour les autorités en charge de la protection du patrimoine, pour les populations locales et pour le grand public, amateur de tourisme culturel. De plus en plus de projets d’étude, conservation et mise en valeur des vestiges en terre sur les sites archéologiques voient le jour dans le monde, dans une perspective d’apport du patrimoine au développement local et territorial. Ces projets font appel à des compétences multiples, empruntant notamment aux disciplines de l’archéologie, de l’architecture, de la conservation, et au domaine de la valorisation patrimoniale. Des acteurs aux profils variés sont ainsi amenés à collaborer sur des projets à la fois plus nombreux et plus complexes, intégrant les apports et attentes de parties prenantes très diversifiées, dans une approche holistique et contextualisée de gestion du patrimoine (Agnew et Bridgland 2006).Les modalités de ces nouvelles collaborations sont étudiées en profondeur dans cette thèse, afin d’analyser les enjeux interdisciplinaires et les enjeux de formation qui en résultent. Nous faisons l’hypothèse que les rapprochements entre les différents acteurs concernés par le patrimoine archéologique génèrent des perspectives de formations plus spécifiques, voire l’émergence de nouveaux métiers au carrefour des disciplines, qui seraient en mesure de mieux répondre aux attentes actuelles vis-à-vis de ce patrimoine.La recherche est fondée sur des enquêtes de terrain et des rencontres d’acteurs menées sur le long terme (quinze années d’exercice scientifique et professionnel), sur cinq sites principaux et douze sites de référence, principalement en Asie, mais aussi en Afrique et en Amérique Latine. Une grille d’analyse permet de confronter les pratiques observées sur ces terrains d’étude aux recommandations internationales en termes d’étude, conservation et valorisation du patrimoine archéologique en terre. Ces recommandations sont issues d’un corpus composé de publications de référence, de chartes et déclarations internationales, de conférences sur l’architecture de terre et de programmes internationaux sur cette thématique. Les résultats de l’analyse comparative nous amènent à faire des propositions méthodologiques et à énoncer des lignes directrices de programmes de formations plus spécifiques. Nous souhaitons ainsi contribuer aux dynamiques de recherche et d’enseignement qui se mettent en place autour du patrimoine archéologique en terre et de son apport au développement local. / Very present on archaeological sites, the vestiges of earthen architecture are arousing a growing interest, for the scientific community, for the authorities in charge of heritage protection, for the local populations and for the general public, fan of cultural tourism. More and more projects for study, conservation and enhancement of earthen architecture in archaeological context are emerging in the world, with a view to contributing to local and territorial development. These projects involve multiple skills, borrowing in particular from the disciplines of archeology, of architecture, of heritage conservation, and from the field of heritage valorisation. Specialists in each field are invited to collaborate on projects that are more numerous and more complex, integrating the inputs and expectations of very diverse stakeholders, in a holistic and contextualized approach to heritage management (Agnew, Bridgland 2006).The conditions governing these new collaborations are studied in depth in this thesis, in order to analyze the interdisciplinary challenges and the resulting training issues. We make the hypothesis that the links between the various actors involved in the archaeological heritage generate more specific training prospects, and even the emergence of new trades at the crossroads and interfaces of the disciplines, which would better meet current expectations with regard to this heritage.The research is based on field surveys and stakeholder meetings realized over the long term (fifteen years of scientific and professional practice), at five main sites and twelve reference sites, mainly in Asia, but also in Africa and in Latin America. An analysis grid allows to compare the practices observed on the field with the international recommendations in terms of study, conservation and valorisation of the archaeological heritage built with earth. These recommendations are based on a corpus of reference publications, international charters and declarations, conferences on earthen architecture and international programs on this theme. The results of the comparative analysis lead us to make methodological proposals and to formulate guidelines for more specific training programs. In this way, we wish to contribute to the new research and training dynamics that are set up around the earthen archaeological heritage and its contribution to local development.

Submitted by EDUARDO DA SILVA PINTO null (falecom_edu@hotmail.com) on 2017-01-11T16:16:55Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação Final Revisada.pdf: 15135107 bytes, checksum: 771e35a4fe6f9c0ef2e875ce1487b7c4 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by LUIZA DE MENEZES ROMANETTO (luizamenezes@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2017-01-12T16:15:50Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 pinto_es_me_bauru.pdf: 15135107 bytes, checksum: 771e35a4fe6f9c0ef2e875ce1487b7c4 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-01-12T16:15:50Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 pinto_es_me_bauru.pdf: 15135107 bytes, checksum: 771e35a4fe6f9c0ef2e875ce1487b7c4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-09-16 / No presente trabalho são propostos métodos de ensaio para caracterização física e mecânica de solo-cimento compactado. Para que esse objetivo seja alcançado, é proposto um novo modelo de molde, para produção de corpos de prova, tornando os ensaios mais práticos e confiáveis, com intuito de incentivar o uso de técnicas de construção civil que gerem menos impactos ambientais negativos. Além disso, através dos resultados obtidos, pretendeu-se produzir subsídios para futuras discussões com outros pesquisadores, com intuito de que seja feita uma revisão das normas brasileiras de solo-cimento, junto a Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas (ABNT). Os resultados obtidos através dos ensaios realizados com o novo molde são promissores no que diz respeito a facilitar o processo de caracterização física e mecânica do material, mantendo um nível de confiabilidade compatível com o obtido através da metodologia atual. / In this research we propose a new methodology for testing physical and mechanical characterization of rammed earth stabilized with cement. For this objective to be achieved, it proposes a new mold for the production of test specimens, making it more practical and reliable, aiming to encourage the use of construction techniques that generate less negative environmental impacts. In addition, through the results obtained, we intend to generate a basis for future discussions with other researchers, with an objective to a revision of Brazilian soil-cement standards, with the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards - ABNT. Results obtained from the tests performed with the new mold are promising with regard to facilitate the process of physical and mechanical characterization of the material while maintaining a reliability level consistent with that obtained over the current methodology.

For ten thousand years people have used earthen building material in their homes and in just the last hundred years advanced society has gradually turned away from it due to the development of modern technology. Earth is currently of little use as a building material, but it is gradually increasing with the importance of sustainability. Earth has its place in contemporary modern architecture and this is what this work tries to point out. The research is based on the assumption that each building material gravitates with its properties, composition and also the knowledge of the builder to create a certain space. Different building materials define different spaces, different construction uses and different details. This research defined the network of knowledge with the central themes of the essence of earthen architecture by the method of grounded theory and subsequently applied the theory in the design of a model case. The proposed small structure represents an ideal rendering of the space from a single material on the basis of acquired and known information about this material. It has massive earthen walls, which man created himself and it provides him the shelter. The shelter rises smoothly from the ground, its main source, it has soft round features, which were created by the touch of human hands, and when it expires, it naturally merges with the ground again.

Le but de ce travail de recherche est de démontrer que la ré-exploitation des matériaux locaux de construction dans la vallée du Jourdain, peut contribuer à une autonomie des communautés rurales palestiniennes. Pour ce faire, cette thèse questionne le développement de la filière terre dans ces territoires. Nous posons l’hypothèse qu’il existe un lien étroit entre les transformations de la société rurale, de sa structure économique et politique, et les transformations de la filière constructive en terre. ‘Trois temps’ de cette filière ont été relevés et ont permis de vérifier cette hypothèse. Le cas de la Palestine avant 1920, l’habitat en terre crue entre 1920 et 1970 et finalement la situation actuelle. Ces évolutions nous ont permis de comprendre que la ré-exploitation des matériaux locaux permet une véritable autonomie lorsque la filière est intégrée aux pratiques économiques et sociales en cours. Cette idée a été vérifiée par l’étude du contexte actuel où la filière est en reconstruction temporaire car déconnectée des pratiques sociales et économiques. Ce travail de recherche se divise en trois parties, à l’image de ces ‘trois temps’. La première détaille la relation entre la filière terre et la notion de développement durable pour faire le lien ensuite au cas de la Palestine avant 1920. La seconde précise le changement de valeurs qui s’est opéré entre 1920 et 1970 dans la société rurale et les transformations de l’habitat qui y sont liées. Enfin, la dernière partie tente d’évaluer la reconstruction de cette filière en détaillant le contexte politique et économique actuel pour le confronter ensuite aux actions des nouveaux acteurs sur le terrain. / This research aims to demonstrate that the re-use of local building materials in the Jordan Valley can contribute to the autonomy of rural Palestinian communities. To achieve this, we question the evolution of the earthen building sector in these territories. We assume that there is a close link between the transformations of the rural society, its economic and political structure and the transformations that appeared in the earthen building sector. Three historical periods have been identified and have verified this hypothesis: the case of Palestine before 1920, the period between 1920 and 1970 and finally the current situation. Through these evolutions, we understood that the re-use of local materials allows real autonomy when the earthen building sector is integrated to the ongoing social and economic practices. This idea was verified by studying the current context where this building sector knows a temporary reconstruction. This research is divided into three parts. The first part details the relation that exists between earthen architecture and the concept of sustainable development; we will be explaining the case of Palestine before 1920. The second part specifies the changing values of rural society that have taken place between 1920 and 1970 and the transformations of the habitat linked to it. Finally, the last section attempts to assess the reconstruction of this building sector by detailing the current political and economic context and confronting it with the projects led by the “new actors” on the ground.

No meio da Arquitetura e Construção com Terra, aspectos positivos relacionados à diminuição da degradação ao meio ambiente e à promoção de resultados benéficos ao desempenho das edificações são bastante difundidos entre seus simpatizantes e especialistas. No entanto, um tema que parece ser pouco explorado é o canteiro de produção desta arquitetura e as condições de atuação dos trabalhadores. O trabalho frequentemente é pesado, a quantidade de esforço físico necessária para a execução das diversas tarefas é alta, podendo ser excessiva e até degradante se as condições de operação no canteiro não estiverem devidamente equacionadas. Dada a altíssima frequência das situações de intensa exploração no setor da construção civil no Brasil e considerando o caráter fortemente artesanal da construção com terra, faz-se necessário conhecer como ocorre a produção desta arquitetura e se a mecanização parcial destes canteiros repercute em melhores condições de trabalho aos operários envolvidos. A partir de informações coletadas em entrevistas com trabalhadores, engenheiros e arquitetos envolvidos nos canteiros de produção da arquitetura e construção com terra, visitas a canteiros de produção desta arquitetura, além de informação complementar apresentada sobre estes canteiros na bibliografia especializada, é construída uma avaliação estruturada por uma análise qualitativa e crítica fundamentada na teoria crítica da arquitetura. A evolução do canteiro de obras passa pelo remanejamento e pela eliminação de algumas tarefas. A mecanização parcial permite que operários possam se deslocar, ou ser deslocados, a ocupações menos degradantes. No entanto, a inclusão de máquinas não ocorre primordialmente por este motivo, ela passa a ser considerada pois, ao confrontar o custo da mão de obra com o investimento em maquinário, este último começa a se revelar como financeiramente viável no Brasil. Portanto, a mecanização parcial que ocorre até agora não pretende ir além de um aumento na produtividade. Mesmo com a incorporação de algumas máquinas, parte dos trabalhadores seguem realizando outras tarefas bastante pesadas, muitas delas exaustivamente repetitivas. / Among Earthen Architectures supporters and experts, positive aspects related to low environmental degradation and to the promotion of better results to the building performance are well known. However, a subject that seems to be little explored is the construction site of this architecture and the conditions of operation of workers. The labor is often heavy and a high amount of physical exertion is required. If operating conditions at the construction site are not adequately addressed, the demands may be excessive and even degrading. Given the high frequency of intense exploration in the construction sector in Brazil, also considering the strong artisanal character of earthen construction, it is necessary to know how production takes place in this architecture and if the partial mechanization of these sites improves working conditions. Based on information collected in interviews with workers, engineers and architects involved in earth construction production sites, visits to these architecture building sites, in addition to supplementary information provided by the relevant literature, this paper will present an evaluation structured by a critical and qualitative analysis. This review will be based on the Critical Theory of Architecture. The evolution of the construction site occurs by the relocation and the elimination of some tasks. The partial mechanization allows workers to move, or to be moved, to less degrading jobs. However, in Brazil this is not the reason of the inclusion of machines in the processes, the major purpose is to increase productivity. Even with the incorporation of some machinery, the workers continue performing degrading jobs caused by high physical exertion required or exhaustively repetitive tasks.

No meio da Arquitetura e Construção com Terra, aspectos positivos relacionados à diminuição da degradação ao meio ambiente e à promoção de resultados benéficos ao desempenho das edificações são bastante difundidos entre seus simpatizantes e especialistas. No entanto, um tema que parece ser pouco explorado é o canteiro de produção desta arquitetura e as condições de atuação dos trabalhadores. O trabalho frequentemente é pesado, a quantidade de esforço físico necessária para a execução das diversas tarefas é alta, podendo ser excessiva e até degradante se as condições de operação no canteiro não estiverem devidamente equacionadas. Dada a altíssima frequência das situações de intensa exploração no setor da construção civil no Brasil e considerando o caráter fortemente artesanal da construção com terra, faz-se necessário conhecer como ocorre a produção desta arquitetura e se a mecanização parcial destes canteiros repercute em melhores condições de trabalho aos operários envolvidos. A partir de informações coletadas em entrevistas com trabalhadores, engenheiros e arquitetos envolvidos nos canteiros de produção da arquitetura e construção com terra, visitas a canteiros de produção desta arquitetura, além de informação complementar apresentada sobre estes canteiros na bibliografia especializada, é construída uma avaliação estruturada por uma análise qualitativa e crítica fundamentada na teoria crítica da arquitetura. A evolução do canteiro de obras passa pelo remanejamento e pela eliminação de algumas tarefas. A mecanização parcial permite que operários possam se deslocar, ou ser deslocados, a ocupações menos degradantes. No entanto, a inclusão de máquinas não ocorre primordialmente por este motivo, ela passa a ser considerada pois, ao confrontar o custo da mão de obra com o investimento em maquinário, este último começa a se revelar como financeiramente viável no Brasil. Portanto, a mecanização parcial que ocorre até agora não pretende ir além de um aumento na produtividade. Mesmo com a incorporação de algumas máquinas, parte dos trabalhadores seguem realizando outras tarefas bastante pesadas, muitas delas exaustivamente repetitivas. / Among Earthen Architectures supporters and experts, positive aspects related to low environmental degradation and to the promotion of better results to the building performance are well known. However, a subject that seems to be little explored is the construction site of this architecture and the conditions of operation of workers. The labor is often heavy and a high amount of physical exertion is required. If operating conditions at the construction site are not adequately addressed, the demands may be excessive and even degrading. Given the high frequency of intense exploration in the construction sector in Brazil, also considering the strong artisanal character of earthen construction, it is necessary to know how production takes place in this architecture and if the partial mechanization of these sites improves working conditions. Based on information collected in interviews with workers, engineers and architects involved in earth construction production sites, visits to these architecture building sites, in addition to supplementary information provided by the relevant literature, this paper will present an evaluation structured by a critical and qualitative analysis. This review will be based on the Critical Theory of Architecture. The evolution of the construction site occurs by the relocation and the elimination of some tasks. The partial mechanization allows workers to move, or to be moved, to less degrading jobs. However, in Brazil this is not the reason of the inclusion of machines in the processes, the major purpose is to increase productivity. Even with the incorporation of some machinery, the workers continue performing degrading jobs caused by high physical exertion required or exhaustively repetitive tasks.

Esta investigación surge debido a la necesidad de abordar los problemas de resistencia de los adobes, para ello se propone estabilizarlos mediante adiciones de fibra de totora debido a sus propiedades impermeabilizantes, y cal. Con ello se fabricaron bloques con dimensiones de 25x12.5x9 cm, que contenían paja de 1 cm de longitud y se estabilizaron utilizando fibra de totora y cal en diferentes porcentajes (2%, 4%, 6% de totora y 5%, 10%, 15% de cal en diferentes combinaciones). Se llevaron a cabo diversos ensayos en campo para seleccionar la tierra adecuada para la fabricación de los bloques. Estos ensayos incluyeron pruebas de cinta de barro, resistencia seca, resistencia a la compresión en cubos de barro y tracción indirecta en probetas de barro. En el laboratorio, se realizaron pruebas para caracterizar la tierra, como el Proctor modificado, contenido de humedad, límites de Atterberg y granulometría. Los bloques se secaron durante 14 y 28 días antes de someterlos a ensayos de resistencia a la compresión, absorción, succión, resistencia a la compresión de pilas y muretes, módulo de rotura, variación dimensional, alabeo e inundación simulada. Para realizarlos, primero se buscó determinar la mejor dosificación de las combinaciones realizadas, esta se basó en los resultados de resistencia a la compresión, succión y absorción, los cuales abordaron los principales problemas de las unidades. Los resultados obtenidos indicaron que la combinación óptima resultó ser del 4% de totora y 5% de cal. Concluyendo que el adobe mejorado presentó una mayor resistencia y un menor porcentaje de succión y absorción en comparación con los convencionales. / This research emerges from the need to address the strength issues of adobe blocks. To achieve this, the blocks are proposed to be stabilized through the addition of totora fiber, known for its waterproofing properties, and lime. Blocks with dimensions of 25x12.5x9 cm were manufactured, incorporating 1 cm long straw, and stabilized using different percentages of totora fiber (2%, 4%, 6%) and lime (5%, 10%, 15%) in various combinations. Several field tests were conducted to select the appropriate soil for block manufacturing. These tests included mud tape, dry strength, compression strength on mud cubes, and indirect traction on mud specimens. In the laboratory, soil characterization tests such as modified Proctor, moisture content, Atterberg limits, and particle size analysis were performed. The blocks were dried for 14 and 28 days before undergoing tests for compression strength, absorption, suction, compression strength of stacks and walls, modulus of rupture, dimensional variation, and warping. To carry out these tests, the optimal dosage of the combinations was determined based on the results of compression strength, suction, absorption and simulated flood, which addressed the primary issues of the units. The findings indicated that the optimal combination was 4% totora fiber and 5% lime. In conclusion, the improved adobe exhibited higher strength and lower percentages of suction and absorption compared to conventional blocks.