The changing spatial and temporal patterns in land use/land cover surrounding Zandvlei estuary were investigated over the period 1944 to 2005. Changes in the extent of four terrestrial and two aquatic land use/land cover categories were mapped from high quality aerial photographs using ArcView GIS. Basic spatial analyses were performed to quantify changes in area, 'edge-effects' and relative dominance through time. Semi-natural and seasonally inundated classes accounted for over 70% of land cover in 1944, but declined steadily as urban land use and permanently inundated land cover expanded to a present-day extent of 42% and 19% respectively. The following major drivers of change were identified: 1) the construction of the railway embankment bisecting Westlake wetland and Zandvlei estuary, which led to sedimentation and a change in plant species composition of the wetland, but decreased nutrient inflows into the vlei; 2) agricultural practices within the catchment at the start of the 20th century which increased sediment and nutrient inflows; 3) elevated water levels due to dredging operations between 1947 and 1961, which resulted in a significant loss of seasonally inundated land cover with concomitant changes in species composition and nutrient dynamics; and 4) urban development surrounding the vlei (with particular reference to Marina da Gama), which has expanded at the expense of semi-natural areas and significantly increased effluent and litter inputs into the vlei. A socially and ecologically balanced management policy governing the entire catchment is required to mitigate future impacts.

Up until the early 1990s conservation practices in South Africa were culturally biased, focusing largely on the value systems of the affluent. However, with the release in 1997 of the White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa's Biological diversity, the role that biological resources play in providing for the needs of all South Africans, is now emphasized. According to this policy, human needs must be considered if conservation is to be successfully implemented. Using this document as the framework for this study I chose to investigate various aspects of medicinal plant use in a rural community in Paulshoek, Namaqualand. The main aims were as follows: to evaluate the local knowledge regarding medicinal plants; to document the plants used and collected in Paulshoek; and to determine potential threats to the biological resource. This was achieved by employing a variety of social and ecological methods. It became apparent from the interactions and interviews with the residents that medicinal plants are an important resource to the Paulshoek community since more than 70% of the population regularly use herbal remedies. While there is some evidence to suggest that the local knowledge of medicinal plants is dying out, I would speculate that most of the knowledge has already been lost. Of the 15 plants used and collected in Paulshoek, most appear to be highly sustainable in the landscape. This conclusion was based on people's perceptions regarding the change in abundance of each of these species over time and by further comparing plant size between Paulshoek and adjacent commercial farms. As most medicinal species seem unaffected by either: harvesting or land use practices this indicates that it is possible to achieve a sustainable harvest. Certain species do, however, show evidence of decline. Fuelwood harvesting most probably accounts for the change in abundance of Rhus burchelli over time, while Mentha longifolia may be facing some reduction in plant fitness due to harvesting for medicinal purposes. Sceletium emarcidum is on the verge of local extinction due to a combination of intensive harvesting and high grazing pressures. In contrast, high stocking densities appear to account for the increased abundance in both Galenia africana and Ballota africana. These findings clearly show that while the resource as a whole may be fairly resilient to harvesting and land use practices, certain species are in need of urgent conservation. This study further highlights the need to look beyond the direct impacts of harvesting and consider all possible threats, if the resource is to be sustainably managed. While this case study is atypical of the state of the medicinal plant resource in most of South Africa, this survey serves as a novel protocol for evaluating the sustainability of any resource which is regularly utilized.

Game farming is becoming more popular in southern Africa and the introduction of large indigenous ungulates into confined enclosed areas could alter plant communities and ecosystem processes. This is of particular concern in semi-arid rangelands of the Succulent Karoo where the evolutionary history of grazing is not clear and the compatibility of large herbivores in confined areas remains to be demonstrated. The establishment of Sanbona Wildlife Reserve, a 54 000 hectare private game reserve in the Little Karoo, which converted from livestock farming to game farming, allows an opportunity to study the vegetation dynamics in a confined plant-herbivore system. This study investigates the current community structure and the changes in the floral composition and vegetation structure of enclosed and comparable sites subjected to grazing by large herbivores after twelve years (2004-2015). It also determines the relative effect of grazing and rainfall on the observed patterns. Finally, the implications of these findings for management are discussed. Data from drop-point surveys in fenced (exclosure) and unfenced (grazed) plots in the dominant vegetation types as well as annual and seasonal rainfall totals, stocking rates of herbivores and annual game census information, were analysed. These were used in multivariate ordination techniques, regressions and linear mixed-effects models to determine the communities and their relationship with herbivory and rainfall over time and identify a set of indicator species. The annual game census information was used to determine areas of herbivore preference or 'hotspots' and for the identification of highly-utilised areas. Cluster analysis, using the flexible beta method in PC-Ord, was used to determine the current plant communities. Non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination (NMS) was used to determine the relationship of these communities with the environmental variables and illustrate the trajectories in floristic data. Species were also assigned to plant growth forms and examined as communities and growth form types. The Bray-Curtis distance measures were used to investigate the difference between each treatment over time, within each vegetation community and between treatments. Finally, the effects of rainfall and herbivory were examined using linear mixed-effects models of change over time vs the various potential determinants of change using lmer functions in R. Four communities were identified. These communities corresponded well with to the vegetation type descriptions for Western Little Karoo, Little Karoo Quartz Vygieveld and Renosterveld as described in the National Vegetation Map of Mucina and Rutherford (2006). However, the Western Little Karoo was too broad and two communities were recognised within this vegetation type. The finer scale mapping by Vlok et al. (2005) corresponded relatively well to these communities. Results showed an increase in species richness, abundance and cover over time, with the ungrazed plots experiencing more change than the plots exposed to grazing. Most growth forms exhibited an increase in cover, although low leaf succulents declined in both grazed and ungrazed plots. Medium evergreen shrubs declined in the exclosures and stem succulents declined in the grazed plots. The effects were found in both grazed and ungrazed treatments. In addition, many species which declined in abundance were unpalatable or toxic to herbivores. Because of this, the decline in cover of such species was not attributed to grazing, but was instead interpreted as being a response to other disturbance mechanisms, to competitive displacement and to rainfall events. The low stocking rates in the first five years of the study resulted in there being very little difference evident between the treatments. However, once stocking rates increased from 2008, both species richness and cover increased more rapidly in the ungrazed plots, compared to the grazed plots. An increase in palatable and unpalatable species was observed within both ungrazed and grazed plots indicating that grazing did not change the proportion of palatability classes. However, specific plots in the areas of high animal utilisation were more affected as indicated by the response of cover, species richness and palatable species in these specific plots. This suggests that the grazing pressure may be too high within those areas. The linear mixed-effect model supports the argument that grazing pressure is the dominant driver of the community change within grazed plots. Similarly, the results show that rainfall is the primary driver of the vegetation community in the absence of grazing. Timing, amount and intensity of rainfall can mask these impacts. Thus, the contribution of grazing to vegetation change can probably only be detected by tracking the trends over decades or longer. The use of indicators as a management tool is well documented. In order to identify indicators, a theoretical framework for determining indicators species in the different vegetation communities was created. This was based on the correlation between species abundance and sampling period in the different treatments, which identified species that have significantly increased or decreased over time as a result of the change in land use. Species identified as potential indicators were selected on the basis based on their abundance and ranged in lifespans and palatability. The indicators chosen need to be monitored into the future to confirm their utility as indicators. A small but significant difference between grazed and ungrazed plots suggest that herbivore impact is apparent. Identifying this trend indicates that the monitoring programme is providing a useful tool for assessing the impact of herbivores on an ongoing basis. The recovery process following the withdrawal of domestic livestock from Sanbona was much slower in the grazed plots than in the protected plots. Therefore, for the continued recovery of the vegetation to occur and for there to be a sustained increase in cover, active management of animal numbers needs to take place. The results from this study can contribute to future management decisions on the reserve and form a basis for future analyses.

Kaohsiung's corridor of wetlands is the first of its kind in Taiwan. Therefore, the wetland-related knowledge, attitude, and behavior of the junior high school students are worth exploring and realizing. The main purpose of this study is to explore the student¡¦s background variables (sexual, grade, family socioeconomic status, experience of wetlands, school location) to find out the difference on students¡¦ knowledge, attitude, behavior, and realize the correlation among the ecological conservation of wetlands. The instrument used in this study is the self-compiled questionnaire titled the Kaohsiung junior high school students¡¦ wetland ecological conservation knowledge, attitude, and behavior. The subjects are 891 junior high school students in Kaohsiung city. The data collected are analyzed by descriptive statistics, t tests, single-factor variations data analysis, Pearson product-moment correlation, and etc. The main findings are as follows: 1. The major source of ecological wetland conservation of junior high school students were from the TV & internet, secondly from teachers, parents, and the least was from broadcasting. 2. The students¡¦ knowledge of ecological conservation of wetlands described as good, attitude towards consent and positive, but behavior toward negative. 3. In students¡¦ knowledge of wetland ecological conservation, different grade, family socioeconomic status, and school location exhibited significant differences. However, different sex, and experience of wetlands revealed no significant differences. 4. In students¡¦ attitude of wetland ecological conservation, the experience of wetlands showed significant differences. No significant differences were observed in different sex, grade, family socioeconomic status, and school location. 5. In behavior of wetland ecological conservation, significantly differences were found in different grade, experience of wetlands, and school location. Different sex and family socioeconomic status revealed no significant differences. 6. There was significantly positive correlation between the knowledge and attitude towards wetland ecological conservation of junior high school students; and the significant positive correlation was also found between the attitude and behavior of wetland ecological conservation. There was no significant correlation between the knowledge and behavior towards wetland ecological conservation of junior high school students. Based on the results, several suggestions may be offered for the junior high school in Kaohsiung city, related-educational associations, and future research.

Coastal cities have impacted negatively on freshwater and marine ecosystems - primarily through habitat loss, fragmentation and pollution. Globally, it has been found that otter's dependence on these ecosystems exposes them to a myriad of threats, including loss of habitat, human-wildlife conflict and the bioaccumulation of toxic pollutants. The Cape clawless otter, Aonyx capensis, is the most widely distributed otter species in southern Africa and persists in human-modified habitats, including large cities. The Cape Peninsula provides a unique opportunity to study the impacts of urbanisation on otters as it presents a gradient from densely populated urban areas in the north (City of Cape Town) to sparsely populated areas interspersed with large expanses of natural habitat (Table Mountain National Park) in the south. In this thesis, I investigate the distribution, diet and threats to otters living on the Cape Peninsula. I use sign-based occupancy surveys to determine both broad and fine scale drivers of otter presence within the Peninsula's river systems and predicted that otters would avoid densely populated urban areas and rivers or sections thereof that are heavily transformed and polluted. I collected spraint from living otters and vibrissae from dead otters to investigate their diet. I predicted that otters would show an increased reliance on marine foods in areas where freshwater habitats were degraded in addition to seasonal variation in diet associated with the marked seasonal variation in rainfall and primary productivity typical of temperate Mediterranean ecosystems. I explored both immediate and long-term threats to otters by collating all records of conflict, injury and mortality reported over 5 years in addition to determining PCB levels from road-killed otters. Contrary to my predictions, otters did not avoid urban areas, and were more frequently detected in transformed lowland freshwater river systems close to Marine Protected Areas (MPA). Within rivers otters avoided the relatively pristine, yet unproductive, upper reaches of rivers as well as canalised sections and those with consistently high E.coli counts. I found that otters were feeding on both marine and freshwater prey in both polluted and nonpolluted systems. Where large, transformed lowland wetlands were in close proximity to MPAs, otter diet consisted largely of a combination of freshwater crabs and exotic fish from the polluted systems as well as marine fish and rock lobster from the relatively unpolluted MPA. Isotope results complemented the faecal analyses and confirmed that otters show significant variation in diet between seasons, sites and individuals, suggesting an opportunistic and generalist foraging strategy. Importantly, the dietary results reinforce the distribution model that otters rely heavily on the interface between coastal and lowland wetland and river ecosystems close to the MPA, for both foraging and breeding habitat. However, these are the areas that are transformed and heavily impacted by urban development, and therefore the area where otters would most likely be at risk. I developed a hotspot map of otter conflict across the Peninsula and found that the Peninsula otter population experiences low to moderate levels of conflict throughout most of their current range. High conflict areas are associated with optimal habitat that has been fragmented by canalisation and urban development. Road-killed otters showed signs of accumulation of PCBs in liver tissue suggesting that despite otters being adaptable generalists, their dependence on polluted freshwater systems may have long-term health impacts. Mitigating these threats is possible with improved urban planning, waste water treatment and education of the public. However the success of these approaches requires long-term monitoring which is unlikely to be prioritised by resource constrained conservation authorities. I thus explored whether the large citizen science community in Cape Town can be used to monitor the population. I used Maxent to model otter distribution using citizen reported sightings over 5 years and compared the results with the occupancy model outputs. The predicted Maxent distribution mirrored that provided by occupancy models, and highlighted further areas of suitable otter habitat and routes for dispersal. Together my findings suggest that Cape clawless otters, like many other meso-carnivores in South Africa and globally, display a remarkable ability to adapt to human-modified environments using the interface between degraded freshwater systems and the inshore region to feed on a diverse range of prey. Of concern are the moderate to high levels of conflict with people and dogs, vehicle accidents and the accumulation of toxins. Long-term monitoring of the population and the effect of proposed interventions can be achieved by creating a platform for citizen sightings to be recorded in perpetuity at low cost. This platform can also serve as tool for educating the public on the global challenges of conserving biodiversity within and adjacent to large cities.

This thesis engages with urban ecology through the lens of garden amphibians within a community in Cape Town. The study explores habitat and maintenance features associated with amphibian presence and the social processes underpinning attitudes towards amphibians, with the aim of strengthening knowledge underpinning the "what" (knowledge of natural requirements), "Why" (social drivers for urban landscape form and management), and the "how" (working with people, for garden biodiversity initiatives. To explore the "Why" component, a social survey was conducted with 192 members of the community. One‐way anova and correspondence analysis were used to explore the relationship between values, culture, knowledge and memories of early childhood experiences against a general attitude towards frogs and toads. The findings are consistent with the theoretical framework of Connectedness To Nature where positive attitudes are supported by normative values, cultural beliefs, knowledge and positive experiences with care‐givers and role‐models. The garden habitat component of the study sought to explore the technical questions of the "What" requirement for amphibian presence in gardens. It was loosely based on the BIMBY tool with adaptations for context and targeted species. 50 gardens were visited and surveyed. They were divided into two groups for comparison: Those in which residents reported amphibian presence, and those which did not. Results indicate that the cape river frog (A. fuscigula) and clicking stream frog (S. grayii), are attracted to gardens with moderate to dense vegetation at groundcover level. Gardens with moderately planted beds were more likely to report frogs if they had additional resources, in particular, ponds and mulch. The "How" question brought together the two themes in a discussion on citizen mobilization and ways in which community groups are successfully implementing urban ecology conservation and reconciliation strategies. This work is important for urban nature conservation which seeks to engage private land‐owners (garden enthusiasts) and community and citizen groups in implementing urban biodiversity projects.

Le « topsoil » comme outil de restauration écologique des terrains miniers dégradés, consiste à récupérer la couche de sol naturellement riche en matières organiques, semences et micro-organismes (qui définissent le potentiel biologique de restauration), lors d'une opération qui précède l'exploitation minière, puis à l'épandre sur les sites à restaurer. Au coeur desproblématiques de restauration écologique, les topsoils apparaissent à travers la littérature comme une technique efficiente et leur utilisation est abondamment préconisée. Toutefois celle-ci ne date, en Nouvelle-Calédonie, que des années 2000. Les connaissances actuelles locales liées à cet outil sont encore fragmentaires, et les caractéristiques des topsoils, tout comme les résultats obtenus sont hétérogènes. Ce travail de recherche a permis d'améliorer notre compréhension des interactions entre les composantes biologiques des topsoils et les phénomènes intervenant dansleur évolution (banque de graines, micro-organismes, et caractéristiques physico-chimiques). Les résultats obtenus ont montré que l'utilisation des topsoils en restauration écologique peut favoriser la restauration des écosystèmes ultramafiques néo-calédoniens, et pourraient trouver une application dans la conception de nouvelles stratégies de restauration écologiques des terrains miniers dégradés du territoire. Néanmoins, il est également apparu que les topsoils ne peuvent à eux seuls restaurer la totalité de la diversité végétale qui caractérise les substrats ultramafiques du territoire, et doivent donc être associés à d'autres techniques de restauration. / "Topsoil", as an ecological tool of restoration of the mines made in terraces, consist of getting back the layers full of organic matter, seeds and micro-organisms (which define the biological potential of restoration), during a procedure made following the exploitation of the mines, then could be extend to the sites which require some restoration.While the problem of ecological restoration is at the center of the debate, topsoil appears, according to the literature, as an efficient technique and their uses are well recommended. However, they only have been used in New Caledonia since the beginning of the XXI century. The actual knowledge of this specific tool is still incomplete, and the characteristics of topsoil, same as the results, remain inconsistent. The research made around this topic gave us a better understanding of the interaction between the biological components of topsoil and their way of evolving (seeds’ bank, micro-organisms and the physic and chemical characteristics). The results obtained demonstrate that the use of topsoil as an ecological restoration could be beneficial for the restoration of the ultramafic ecosystem of New Caledonia. It could, as well, find a place in the development of new strategies of ecological restoration of mines in terrace of the country. However, it has been shown in another hand that topsoil would not be sufficient to restore the entire vegetal diversity of the ultramafic bedrock of the country. For this reason, it has to be associated with different techniques of restoration.