A restauração ecológica visa a recuperação de ecossistemas que foram degradados, assegurando o seu restabelecimento estrutural e funcional. Porém, avaliar a funcionalidade do ecossistema ainda é um desafio, e vem sendo foco de trabalhos científicos a fim de desenvolver metodologias aplicáveis. Investigar as redes de interações ecológicas é uma forma adequada para avaliar a funcionalidade do ecossistema. As redes de interações são utilizadas na avaliação de habitats e já evidenciaram alterações na estrutura da comunidade que não foram detectadas pelas métricas tradicionais de riqueza, abundância e composição. Os macrofungos podem ser indicadores relevantes, pois realizam a decomposição e ciclagem de nutrientes e servem de alimento para diversos grupos de organismos, dentre eles os Coleoptera, que também podem utilizar a estrutura fúngica para nidificação. Este trabalho teve por finalidade construir redes tróficas formadas pela interação entre besouros fungívoros (Coleoptera) e macrofungos (Polyporales e Hymenochaetales) a fim de testar a aplicabilidade de redes ecológicas para avaliar a restauração quando comparadas às métricas tradicionais de abundância, riqueza e composição das espécies. O estudo se realizou em duas áreas sobre restauração florestal comparados às áreas de referência pareadas. A primeira área está em restauração há oito anos e a segunda há dez anos, sendo que até o momento, somente a segunda área teve sucesso na restauração da comunidade de plantas. No total, coletamos 512 macrofungos, representando 87 espécies, mas somente 181 indivíduos de 36 espécies apresentaram interações com besouros. Destes, foram obtidos 11.414 besouros de 53 espécies. Em ambas as áreas, as métricas de descritores de comunidade e também as métricas de redes não diferiram entre os tratamentos, indicando que a estrutura e também a funcionalidade das comunidades de macrofungos e besouros fungívoros está sendo recuperada nas áreas em restauração. Apesar de não haver diferença na composição de espécies, a espécie rara Falsocis brasiliensis e alguns exemplares da família Erotylidae somente foram encontradas em áreas de referência. Os processos de restauração diferiram qualitativamente entre as áreas, como podemos perceber através das interações realizadas. As áreas de restauração de dez anos estão mais próximas às áreas de referência, pois foram deixados troncos de madeira que serviram de substrato para os macrofungos, principalmente para o Ganoderma australe e suas interações, encontrado em árvores mortas da floresta de referência de ambas as áreas. Enquanto que as áreas de restauração de oito anos apresentaram pouco substrato lenhoso e baixa umidade, onde Pycnoporus sanguineous predominou em abundância de basidiomas e suas interações em relação à floresta de referência. / Ecological restoration aims to recover degraded ecosystems, ensuring both structural and functional restoration. Assessing ecosystem functionality is still a challenge, and current work is focusing on the development methods. Investigating networks of ecological interactions is a potential tool to assess ecosystem functionality. Interaction networks are used in the assessment of habitat change and have already evidenced differences in community structure that were not detected by the traditional metrics of richness, abundance and composition. Macrofungi are especially relevant indicators, due to their function in decomposition and nutrient cycling in the ecosystem, and as they serve as food source for several groups of organisms, among them the Coleoptera, which can also use the fungal structure for nesting. Here we aimed at building trophic networks formed by the interaction between fungivorous beetles (Coleoptera) and macrofungi (Polyporales and Hymenochaetales), in order to test the applicability of ecological networks for the evaluation of restoration when compared to the traditional metrics of abundance, richness and species composition through the macrofungi-beetles system. Research was conducted in two areas under forest restoration, compared to paired reference areas. The first area is under restoration process for 8 years and the second for 10 years, and in the second area the restoration success has been achieved based on plant community evaluation. During the study, we collected 512 macrofungi individuals, representing 87 species, but only 181 specimens from 36 species showed interactions with beetles. A total of 11,414 beetles from 53 species were obtained. For both areas, traditional community descriptors did not differ between treatments, nor did network metrics, indicating that the structure and also the functionality of the communities of fungivorous beetles and macrofungi are being successfully recovered in restoration areas. Although there is no difference in species composition, the rare species Falsocis brasiliensis and some specimens of the Erotylidae were found only in reference areas. The processes of restoration differ qualitatively between areas, as we can perceive through the interactions. The ten year-long restoration areas are more similar to the reference areas, due to the presence of wood logs that served as substrate for the macrofungus, mainly Ganoderma australe and its associated beetles, occurring on dead trees found in the both reference forest areas. On the other hand, the eight year-long restoration area had less woody substrate, composed mostly of thin branches, and less humidity, where Pycnoporus sanguineous predominated in basidiome abundance and their interactions compared to the reference forest.

A crescente degradação de ecossistemas tornam necessários inúmeros esforços para recuperá-los. A ecologia da restauração é uma ciência que vem crescendo, buscando suporte e apoiando as bases da ecologia teórica. O papel das áreas restauradas na manutenção da biodiversidade é ainda incerto, mas há consenso que estas devem restabelecer os atributos ecológicos. A escolha de bons indicadores ecológicos é crucial para avaliar a evolução dessas áreas. A análise da vegetação é um bom indicador, por ser possível utilizar métodos simples de execução e apresentar respostas rápidas às condições (bióticas e abióticas), fornecendo, por exemplo, informação dos agentes dispersores na área e das características das espécies que compõe a comunidade. Através dessas informações é possível inferir se a área é visitada por animais e como ocorre o processo sucessional. A presente pesquisa consistiu na análise da vegetação de florestas em processo de restauração com idades diferentes. Foram escolhidos plantios com oito e 12 anos e um remanescente florestal. Em cada área foram alocadas 30 parcelas de 10 x 10 m, todos os indivíduos arbustivo-arbóreos (estrato arbóreo) com diâmetro a altura do peito maior ou igual a 10 cm foram amostrados, identificados e tiveram sua altura estimada. O estrato regenerante foi registrado por parcelas de 2 x 10 m alocadas no interior das parcelas (10 x 10m) onde foram amostrados e identificados indivíduos com altura maior ou igual a 50 cm e diâmetro a altura do peito menor que 10 cm. As espécies encontradas foram categorizadas em grupos funcionais (síndromes de dispersão e classes de sucessão) e origem (nativa e exótica). Para o estrato arbóreo e para o regenerante, o ecossistema de referência apresentou maior densidade, riqueza e diversidade. Diferente do ecossistema de referência, os plantios apresentaram muitos indivíduos de espécies de origem exótica, e não apresentaram muitos indivíduos das classes sucessionais clímax. Diante dos resultados talvez sejam necessárias ações de manejo adaptativo, com retirada das espécies que tem potencial invasor e enriquecimento funcional para que a evolução das áreas não seja comprometida. A avaliação da vegetação mostrou-se bom indicativo no estudo da evolução das áreas em processo de restauração. / The growing degradation of ecosystems makes it necessary the adoption of various efforts in order to restore it. Restoring ecology is a science that has been growing, seeking support and providing support to the foundations of theoretical ecology. The role of the restored areas in the maintenance of biodiversity is still uncertain; however there is consensus that they should restore the ecological attributes. The choice of good ecological indicators is crucial in order to assess the evolution of those areas. The analysis of the vegetation is a good indicator, because it enables the use of simple execution methods and because it also presents fast answers to the conditions (biotic and abiotic) providing for example, information about the dispersing agents of the area as well as the characteristics of the species that makes up the community. Through this information, it is possible to infer if the area is visited by animals and how the succession process happens. The current research consists of the analysis of the vegetation of forests in restoring process with different ages. Plantings were chosen between 8 to 12 years and a remnant forest. In each area 30 plots of 10 X 10 m were allocated, all tree species with diameter and breast height higher or the same as 10 cm were shown, identified and had their height estimated. The regenerative component was recorded in plots of 2 X 10 m allocated in the interior of the plots where they were sampled and identified the individuals with height higher than 50 cm and diameter and breast height lower than 10 cm. The species found were categorized in functional groups (dispersion syndrome and restoring guilds). The highest values of density, richness and diversity of arboreal and regeneration layers were found in the reference ecosystem. The forests in process of restoration considered in this work, unlike the reference ecosystem, presented numerous individuous of exotic species, and did not present many late-successional individuous. Results suggest that performing adaptative management actions, such as invasive species removal and functional enrichment, may be necessary for the appropriate evolution of the concerned areas. Evaluation of the vegetation was considered a good indicator to study the development of areas in process of restoration.

A Mata Atlântica é considerada mundialmente um dos biomas prioritários para conservação, devido à elevada riqueza de sua biodiversidade. A preservação da vegetação natural deve estar associada à restauração florestal, de modo que se possa assegurar a continuidade desta rica biota. No Brasil, grande parte dos projetos de restauração florestal realizados até agora tem se preocupado apenas em buscar diversidade florística, contemplando uma baixa diversidade genética em sua implantação, o que têm criado muitos problemas relativos à viabilidade biológica de suas comunidades. O presente trabalho se propôs a realizar um estudo comparando a diversidade genética (utilizando marcadores SSR, cpSSR e AFLP) da espécie arbórea Piptadenia gonoacantha (Mart.) J. F. Macbr. em duas áreas em processo de restauração florestal e dois remanescentes naturais de floresta estacional semidecidual da Mata Atlântica do estado de São Paulo, Brasil. A partir da biblioteca genômica construída, foram obtidos 12 locos SSR. A heterozigosidade média esperada no equilíbrio de Hardy Weinberg (HE = 0,494) foi maior do que a heterozigosidade observada (HO = 0,251) em todas as populações, indicando taxa relativamente alta de endogamia (FIS = 0,342). Os resultados obtidos com os locos cpSSR mostraram, ao todo, 16 haplótipos, dos quais 10 foram encontrados nos remanescentes de floresta nativa e oito nas áreas restauradas. As análises realizadas com os marcadores AFLP resultaram em 303 marcas polimórficas. Uma estrutura genética muito forte foi encontrada relativa às quatro populações, valores de FST foram 0,283, 0,83 e 0,177 em SSR, cpSSR e AFLP, respectivamente. Dez locos de AFLP que podem estar sujeitos a seleção foram encontrados. As análises de agrupamento delimitam claramente as amostras das quarto populações, evidenciando que não existe fluxo gênico significativo entre elas. P. gonoacantha apresentou auto correlação espacial nas quatro populações. Os três tipos de marcadores detectaram maior diversidade genética nos remanescentes naturais do que nas áreas restauradas. Apesar da menor diversidade apresentada pelas áreas restauradas em comparação com as áreas de remanescentes florestais, o tamanho efetivo populacional estimado para essas áreas permite a manutenção da variabilidade existente a curto prazo. As informações obtidas poderão servir para o manejo sustentado desta espécie, bem como para o planejamento de sua conservação. / The Atlantic Forest is considered one of the world biomes for conservation priority due to the high richness of its biodiversity. The preservation of natural vegetation should be associated to forest restoration, so that the continuity of this rich biota can be ensured. Recent studies and practices of reforestation in degraded areas have taken population genetics as a great ally. Several of the forest restoration projects carried out in Brazil so far has been concerned just with floristic diversity, contemplating low genetic diversity. This fact has created many problems related to the biological viability of their communities. The present project proposes to carry out a study on the diversity genetic structure of the arboreal species Piptadenia gonoacantha (Mart.) J. F. Macbr. In this study, we used six chloroplast simple-sequence repeats (cpSSRs), AFLP markers and the construction of an enriched SSR DNA library to investigate the genetic diversity of P. gonoacantha. This species was evaluated in two areas that are under forest restoration process and compared then with two natural remnants of semideciduous seasonal Atlantic Forest. 12 SSR markers were obtained and the average HO=0.251 was smaller than the average HE=0.494, evidencing a heterozygote deficit (average FIS= 0.342). The samples shows a strong structure with a significant differentiation. FST values were 0.283, 0.83 and 0.177 for SSR, cpSSR and AFLP respectively. The cluster analyzes clearly demarcating the samples of the four populations. cpSSR markers showed 16 haplotypes, ten of them were found in the remaining native forest and eight in the restored areas. Ten AFLP outliers loci were found. The three types of markers detected a higher genetic diversity in natural remnant than in restored areas. Despite the lower diversity presented by the restored areas compared with areas of forest remaining, the effective population size estimated for these areas allows the maintenance of existing variability. The results of this study prove that there is greater genetic diversity in the remaining natural areas than in the areas undergoing a reforestation process. The information obtained may be used for the sustainable management of this species, as well as for conservation planning.

Woody encroachment upon grasslands is a global trend that is cause for concern. In the Lampasas Cut Plain of Texas, Ashe juniper is the dominant woody invasive species. Grassland restoration is dependent upon proper seedbed preparation and seedling establishment. Shearing and bulldozing are common methods of juniper removal. Three hypotheses were tested in this experiment. The first was that bulldozing and shearing results in similar seedbed preparations. The second was that electrical conductivity (ECa) models soil moisture storage heterogeneity across a landscape. The third hypothesis tested was that bulldozing and shearing result in similar seedling establishment. Eighteen plots were selected and three treatments were applied: 1) shearing, 2) dozing, and 3) control. After clearing with both juniper removal methods, the levels of soil disturbance and vegetation regrowth were measured. Point measures were used to describe soil surface disturbance, and at each point, presence and size of ground cover and surface depressions were recorded. After germination, when the plants were large enough to identify, vegetation was sampled at 20-24 locations in each plot. At each sample location a quadrat was placed on the transect, and total herbaceous, grass, forb, rock, litter, and bare soil cover were recorded in cover classes. All species were identified, seeded species were enumerated, and in the second vegetation sample, dominant species were assigned a cover class. There was considerable variation between plots for all parameters measured. Bulldozing created a greater number of depressions in the soil than shearing. It also had a higher percent of large depressions. There was no difference in ground cover change between treatments except in the case of the largest litter category. ECa was effective in modeling soil moisture storage patterns and had a lower coefficient of variation than manual soil depth measurements. There was no difference between sheared and dozed plots for any of the vegetation establishment parameters, but control plots had lower establishment in most categories. Overall, there was little difference between the two treatments in seedbed preparation and seedling establishment. The cost of shearing was 80% of the cost of dozing, which made it more desirable in this scenario.

Woody encroachment upon grasslands is a global trend that is cause for concern. In the Lampasas Cut Plain of Texas, Ashe juniper is the dominant woody invasive species. Grassland restoration is dependent upon proper seedbed preparation and seedling establishment. Shearing and bulldozing are common methods of juniper removal. Three hypotheses were tested in this experiment. The first was that bulldozing and shearing results in similar seedbed preparations. The second was that electrical conductivity (ECa) models soil moisture storage heterogeneity across a landscape. The third hypothesis tested was that bulldozing and shearing result in similar seedling establishment. Eighteen plots were selected and three treatments were applied: 1) shearing, 2) dozing, and 3) control. After clearing with both juniper removal methods, the levels of soil disturbance and vegetation regrowth were measured. Point measures were used to describe soil surface disturbance, and at each point, presence and size of ground cover and surface depressions were recorded. After germination, when the plants were large enough to identify, vegetation was sampled at 20-24 locations in each plot. At each sample location a quadrat was placed on the transect, and total herbaceous, grass, forb, rock, litter, and bare soil cover were recorded in cover classes. All species were identified, seeded species were enumerated, and in the second vegetation sample, dominant species were assigned a cover class. There was considerable variation between plots for all parameters measured. Bulldozing created a greater number of depressions in the soil than shearing. It also had a higher percent of large depressions. There was no difference in ground cover change between treatments except in the case of the largest litter category. ECa was effective in modeling soil moisture storage patterns and had a lower coefficient of variation than manual soil depth measurements. There was no difference between sheared and dozed plots for any of the vegetation establishment parameters, but control plots had lower establishment in most categories. Overall, there was little difference between the two treatments in seedbed preparation and seedling establishment. The cost of shearing was 80% of the cost of dozing, which made it more desirable in this scenario.

Buffelgrass (Pennisetum ciliare) is a perennial bunchgrass native to Africa that has invaded ecologically intact areas of the Sonoran Desert in southern Arizona. It threatens many native plant species by means of competitive exclusion as well as increased fire frequency and intensity. Since the 1990s, efforts have been underway in southern Arizona to control buffelgrass using manual removal. A problem with this method is that the resulting bare, disturbed soil provides a favorable environment for buffelgrass seed germination. This study examined whether thatch composed of uprooted buffelgrass parent plants spread over disturbed areas reduces the density of progeny seedlings. A secondary goal was to determine whether light attenuation and/or autoallelopathy were major factors involved in the effect of thatch on buffelgrass seedling density. The effect of light attenuation on seedling density was tested in containers in the field and in the greenhouse. The propensity of thatch to produce autoallelopathic chemicals was tested in the greenhouse. Field plots with thatch had 1.9 buffelgrass seedlings/m² which was significantly fewer (p= 0.03) than the 2.9 seedlings/ m² in plots without thatch. These results suggest that the placement of thatch over areas disturbed during manual treatment of dense stands of buffelgrass will increase the efficiency of follow-up control of buffelgrass progeny seedlings in these areas. Results of the field container study suggest that light attenuation does not play a significant role (p= 0.39) in the reduction of seedling density by thatch, whereas those of the greenhouse shade treatment study indicated that light attenuation is a significant factor (p= 0.004). However, because percent germination was very low in the field container study, those results may be of little value compared to the greenhouse shade treatment study results which indicate that light attenuation is a mechanism by which thatch reduces buffelgrass seedling emergence. Chemicals leached from decomposed buffelgrass thatch did not have a significant effect (p= 0.09) on buffelgrass seedling density. Only the combination of thatch and leached chemicals significantly reduced (p= 0.014) seedling density. Thatch may also increase the activity of other factors that could reduce seedling density such as pathogens, and predators of seeds and seedlings.

During oil-sands mining all vegetation cover, soil, overburden and oil-sand is removed, leaving pits several kilometres wide and hundreds of metres deep. These pits are reclaimed by a variety of treatments using mineral soil or a mixed peat and mineral soil as the capping layer and planted with trees with natural colonisation from adjacent sites. A number of reclamation treatments covering different age classes were compared with a range of natural forest ecotypes to identify the age at which the treatments become similar to a natural site with respect to vegetation composition and key soil attributes relevant to nutrient cycling. Ecosystem function was estimated from plant community composition, litter decomposition, development of an organic layer and bio-available nutrients. Key response variables including moisture, pH, C:N ratios, bio-available nutrients and ground-cover were analysed by non-metric multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis to discover which reclamation treatments were moving towards or merging with natural forest ecotypes and at what age this occurs. On reclaimed sites, bio-available nutrients including nitrate generally were above the natural range of variability but ammonium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium and manganese were generally very low and limiting to ecosystem development. Plant diversity was similar to natural sites from 5 years to 30 years after reclamation, but declined as reclaimed sites approached canopy closure. Grass and forb leaf litters decomposed faster than aspen or pine in the first year, but decomposition on one reclamation treatment fell below the natural range of variability. Development of an organic layer appeared to be facilitated by the presence of shrubs, while forbs correlated negatively with first-year decomposition of aspen litter. The better restoration amendments for tailings sands involved repeated fertilisation of peat: mineral mixtures in the early years of plant establishment, these became similar to a target ecotype at about 25 years. Good results were also shown by subsoil laid over non-saline overburden and fertilised once, these became similar to a target ecotype at about 15 years. Other treatments receiving a single application of fertiliser remain entrenched in the early reclamation phase for up to 25 years.

Surface coal mining in Appalachia has contributed to a suite of ecological impacts, both terrestrial and aquatic. Conventional reclamation in Appalachia leads to the development of hay/pasture systems dominated by nonnative grasses and legumes, with soils that are chemically and physically unfavorable to native tree growth. Several studies have shown that more weathered minespoils provide a better growth medium than unweathered spoils in Appalachia. Spoil segregation plots were constructed on Bent Mountain in Pike County, KY, to compare the suitability of three mine spoil types (BROWN weathered sandstone, GRAY unweathered sandstone, and MIXED sandstones and shales). In 2013 (after nine growing seasons) volume of planted trees was 50x higher on BROWN than on GRAY. In addition, natural colonization of unplanted groundcover and tree species was much more extensive on BROWN than GRAY or MIXED. Most water chemical parameters were similar across spoil types; however, water chemistry on all plots appears to have stabilized after nine growing seasons. Finally, rapidly developing forest on BROWN appears to be influencing water budgeting on the site, leading to lower discharge during summer months. These results indicate that BROWN weathered spoils provide a better growth medium than GRAY unweathered spoils for native trees.

Ecological restoration projects provide the opportunity for individuals to reconnect with the natural environment. However, the actions and approaches of some ecological restorationists should be brought into question. The concern is that while restoration projects often feature a great deal of public input, hard engineering and site manipulation, they are still based on human-centered priorities. Several scholars in the emerging field of Buddhism and Ecology have applied Buddhist teachings to studies in ecology to advocate a selfless, interconnected approach between humans and ecosystems. However, there has been no work devoted to interconnectedness between Buddhism and the practice and promise of ecological restoration. In this thesis we follow the path of the Buddha, Bhikkhu Buddhadasa and the practitioners and philosophers of ecological restoration to discover if Buddhadasas’ teachings and interpretations of paţicca-samuppāda (dependent origination) and anattā (no-self) will be able to help restorationists approach ecological restoration in a more interconnected and selfless way.

Much emphasis has been placed on the recovery and maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Although a number of studies have focused on the relationship between carbon sequestration and ecosystem dynamics, few have focused on the effects of management activities oriented towards biodiversity values on soil carbon and nitrogen pools. The dual goals of restoration for ecosystem structure and function versus restoration for soil carbon sequestration may not be mutually exclusive. This research evaluates the ability of restoration work to meet both of these goals using the restoration work done by the Galiano Conservancy Association in a Coastal Douglas-fir forest on Galiano Island, British Columbia as a case study. The restoration in District Lot 63 was successful in terms of increasing both floristic diversity and stand structure heterogeneity. Significant changes in soil carbon were observed in the forest floor, and significant changes in both soil carbon and nitrogen were observed in the top 15 cm of the mineral soil. As time from treatment increased, soil carbon and nitrogen approached, and in some cases surpassed, reference area levels. The results from this study indicate that the restoration on Galiano Island was successful in terms of increasing the biodiversity values of the stand and may have no large long-term effects on soil carbon or nitrogen pools.