Equal access in education has proven to be less than sufficient regarding academic success for all students (Atchison et al., 2017; Glynn and Wassell, 2018). Previous research indicates that despite efforts to impart significant reforms in public education within the United States, few gains have been made regarding equity among students (Glynn and Wassell, 2018). Some researchers have recommended that school divisions provide equal access to education pathways as a step in the right direction for educators, administrators, and school divisions; as employing equity in education provides all students with the resources needed to experience academic success (Atchison et al., 2017). This is because equity impacts educational opportunities as it entails the experiences of individuals and social identifiers (Atchison et al., 2017). The purpose of this study was to identify variables that contribute to the minority student enrollment gap in advanced, Advanced Placement (AP), and International Baccalaureate (IB) English and Math courses at the high school level. The researcher used a multiple regression analysis to assess if significant gaps of enrollment in advanced, AP, and IB English and Math courses exist between minority and non-minority students in Virginia public high schools from 2015-2020. The possible impacts of attendance and economic status on minority student enrollment in advanced, AP, and IB English and Math courses were also examined. The results of the study yielded significant enrollment gaps between minority and non-minority students in advanced, AP, and IB English and Math courses in Virginia public high schools. / Doctor of Education / Equal access in education has proven to be less than sufficient regarding academic success for all students (Atchison et al., 2017; Glynn and Wassell, 2018). Previous research indicates that despite efforts to impart significant reforms in public education within the United States, few gains have been made regarding equity among students (Glynn and Wassell, 2018). Some researchers have recommended that school divisions provide equal access to education pathways as a step in the right direction for educators, administrators, and school divisions; as employing equity in education provides all students with the resources needed to experience academic success (Atchison et al., 2017). This is because equity impacts educational opportunities as it entails the experiences of individuals and social identifiers (Atchison et al., 2017). The purpose of this study was to identify variables that contribute to the minority student enrollment gap in advanced, Advanced Placement (AP), and International Baccalaureate (IB) English and Math courses at the high school level. The researcher used a multiple regression analysis to assess if significant gaps of enrollment in advanced, AP, and IB English and Math courses exist between minority and non-minority students in Virginia public high schools from 2015-2020. The researcher also simultaneously examined the possible impacts of attendance and economic status on minority student enrollment in advanced, AP, and IB English and Math courses. The researcher found that significant gaps exist between minority and non-minority students in advanced, AP, and IB English and Math courses in Virginia public high schools.

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between building conditions and student achievement of students identified in the subgroups of poverty and minority in high schools in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The targeted population was identified by using the study conducted by Crook (2006) which included information obtained from seventy-two high schools across the Commonwealth of Virginia. Building conditions used in the study were based upon the responses received from principals on the Commonwealth Assessment of Physical Environment (CAPE) form. The scaled scores of economically disadvantaged students and minority students on the Standards of Learning tests administered in grades nine through eleven during the 2004-2005 school year were used to measure student achievement. The status of economically disadvantaged students was controlled by the classification of a student receiving free and reduced-priced lunch during the 2004-2005 school year. The status of minority students was controlled by ethnicity as reported by the individual schools to the Virginia Department of Education for the 2004-2005 school year. Two basic research questions guided this study and the researcher used t-tests to compare dependent variable means across independent variables. The research questions include: Is there a significant difference between the scores of economically disadvantaged students housed in building conditions rated substandard and those housed in buildings rated standard in the high schools in the Commonwealth of Virginia? Is there a significant difference between the scores of minority students housed in buildings rated substandard and those housed in buildings rated standard in the high schools in the Commonwealth of Virginia? This study found an inconsistent relationship between building conditions and the achievement of economically disadvantaged students. Therefore, the conclusion is that the condition of the school building does not apparently influence the achievement of economically disadvantaged students when they are housed in inferior buildings. In addition, this study found a positive relationship between building conditions and the achievement of minority students in the majority of the achievement measures. Therefore, the conclusion is that the condition of the school building does in fact influence the achievement of minority students when the building is in poor condition. / Ed. D.

Migrant children are considered one of the most at-risk populations in the United States. They confront multiple obstacles of poverty, poor health, mobility, and limited English proficiency (LEP). These factors contribute to the difficulties that migrant children may encounter in the educational system. Once a migrant student is identified as having a disability, he/she faces problems not only because of his/her migratory lifestyle but also because of his/her disability. Little research has been conducted regarding migrant students with disabilities. Many questions remain unanswered. Some of the literature alludes to an underrepresentation of migrant students in special education, but no empirical research exists. The purpose of the study is two-fold. The first is to examine the extent of the migrant student population that is currently identified as having disabilities in the school districts across the state of Texas. The second purpose of the study is to examine the common characteristics of school districts that have a disproportionate representation of migrant students served by special education. Data for the 2000-2001 school year was obtained from the Texas Education Agency (TEA) from their Public Education Information Management System (PEIMS) and the Program Analysis System (PAS). There were 223 districts included in the sample. There were 71,656 migrant students in the sample with 9,078 migrant students receiving special education services. Migrant students across the state of Texas were primarily Hispanic and economically disadvantaged. Forty five percent of all migrants were also LEP. Although 12% of the migrant population across the state received special education services during the 2000-2001 school year, further analysis demonstrated that there was a higher percentage of migrant students that received services under the Learning Disability category when compared to all students, excluding migrants. There were also a number of districts that had an overrepresentation of migrant students that received special education services, while others had an underrepresentation of migrant LEP students that received special education services. Overall, this study indicates that there is a disproportionate representation of migrant students that received special education services across the school districts of Texas.

The purpose of this study was to measure the possible relationship between Advanced Placement and dual enrollment courses for economically disadvantaged students on 2-year completion rates at public Tennessee higher education institutions. A quantitative, quasi experimental, comparative design was used to analyze secondary data to determine if there is a relationship between Advanced Placement, dual enrollment courses, and 2-year completion rates for students in Tennessee community colleges and public universities. The sample for this study consisted of students who entered a Tennessee community college or Tennessee public university in the Fall of 2015. These students had taken at least one Advanced Placement or dual enrollment course in a Tennessee high school. In addition, the sample for this study was economically disadvantaged using the Tennessee method for direct certification when taking an Advanced Placement or dual enrollment course. The researcher observed that economically disadvantaged students are significantly less likely to attain completion in two years as compared to noneconomically disadvantaged students. The researcher also observed that economically disadvantaged students who receive credit in an AP math or English class are significantly more likely than economically disadvantaged students who did not receive credit in an AP math or English class to complete a degree in two years. The researcher also observed that economically disadvantaged students who participated in a dual enrollment course are significantly less likely to attain completion in two years than noneconomically disadvantaged students, however if economically disadvantaged students receive credit in a dual enrollment course they are significantly more likely to complete a degree in two years.

At an urban school district, administrators were concerned about the English language arts (ELA) achievement gap between economically disadvantaged (ED) students and non-economically disadvantaged (NED). To address this gap in performance, district administrators instituted an extended day program (EDP) for ED students that included additional learning time and individualized strategies in ELA. The purpose of the study was to determine the extent of the impact that the EDP had on ED students in ELA achievement. The quasi-experimental quantitative design was guided by Carroll's model of school learning and explored the difference in ELA Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) scale scores between ED students who participated in the EDP and ED students who did not during the 2016/2017 school year. The study examined 28 matched-pairs of students, based on grade level and reading ability who were classified as ED during school year 2016/2017, following an intervention. Ex post facto analysis included a paired-samples t test to determine whether a statistically significant difference existed in ELA PARCC scores for ED students who received the intervention and those who did not, controlling for grade level and reading level. Data analysis indicated no statistical difference between groups. The project deliverable recommended implementation of a Response to Intervention program to replace the EDP because such a program would affect more students. Local school administrators may use the findings of the study to effectuate positive social change by making program decisions that could support the improvement of ELA achievement of ED students. In the larger context, this study could become part of the body of literature on the relationship between extended learning time and academic achievement among ED students.

The purpose of this study was to identify which school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia have equitable representation of Culturally Linguistically Economically Diverse (CLED) students in gifted programs within their schools. Existing literature on CLED students was reviewed. Three years of data (school years 2016-2017, 2017-2018, and 2018-2019) obtained from the Virginia Department of Education (VDOE) were analyzed to determine whether equitable representation exists within gifted education programs in each of the 132 Virginia school divisions. Furthermore, the researcher used the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) to acquire longitudinal gifted data from each school division 2016-2019. The Relative Difference Composition Index (RDCI), Equity Allowance Formula (EAF), and Representation Index (RI) formulas were used to determine, which schools have equitable representation within their gifted programs. This study sought to answer the following questions: 1. What school divisions have proportional representation of economically disadvantaged students? 2. What school divisions have proportional representation of Black or African American students? 3. What school divisions have a proportional representation of Hispanic or Latinx students? At the conclusion of the data collection process, the researcher examined (1) which school divisions have equitable representation of gifted students in their gifted programs in schools using the EAF, and (2) What schools have equitable representation utilizing the RI. The analysis revealed the majority of the school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia had equitable representation when the EAF was applied to the economically disadvantaged students. When the EAF was applied to the 2016-2019 school years data for the Black or African American students and Hispanic or Latinx students the range of 33%- 42% were proportionately represented. The English Language Learner students were not proportionately represented when the EAF was applied. When the RI formula was applied to the data, none of the school divisions had perfect proportion in the Commonwealth of Virginia. In 2016-2017, Halifax school division had a score of .86 which translates to proportionate representation when the EAF and RI formula were applied to the data. The findings of this study provide educational leaders with relevant research toward equitable representation for CLED students in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The VDOE and school leaders could offer professional development regarding equitable representation for teachers and staff that work with CLED students to resolve disproportionality. School divisions could benefit from the implementation of equity allowance goals to help reduce inequitable representation of CLED gifted students. / Doctor of Education / The underrepresentation of students with low incomes in gifted education is a persistent problem (Ford, 2013a; Hamilton, McCoach, Tutwiler, Siegle, Gubbins, Callahan, Brodersen, and Mun, 2018). In recent times, researchers have started to discuss educational access and outcomes for low socioeconomic students (Goings and Ford, 2018). According to VanTassel-Baska and Stambaugh (2018), there is a need to address economically disadvantaged for students who attend public schools in the United States. In particular, there are problems formally identifying economically disadvantaged students for gifted services (VanTassel-Baska and Stambaugh, 2018). Researchers seldom focus on gifted students that live in low-income households. The purpose of this study was to identify which school divisions in the Commonwealth of Virginia have equitable representation of Culturally Linguistically Economically Diverse (CLED) students in gifted programs within their schools. Existing literature on CLED students was reviewed. Three years of data (school years 2016-2017, 2017-2018, and 2018-2019) obtained from the Virginia Department of Education (VDOE) were analyzed to determine whether equitable representation exists within gifted education programs in each of the 132 Virginia school divisions. Furthermore, the researcher used the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) to acquire longitudinal gifted data from each school division 2016-2019. The RDCI, Ford Equity (EAF), and RI formulas were used to determine, which schools have equitable representation within their gifted programs. At the conclusion of the data collection process, the researcher examined (1) which school divisions have equitable representation of gifted students in their gifted programs in schools using the EAF, and (2) What schools have equitable representation utilizing the RI. The analysis will reveal which school divisions have equitable representation within the Commonwealth of Virginia.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to assess teacher perception of how economically disadvantaged students at White Pine School were being served. The results of this study may help educators at White Pine School determine how to support and improve learning conditions for economically disadvantaged students. Data collection techniques included individual interviews, focus group interviews, and document review. The following conditions were discovered in relation to economically disadvantaged students: positive home-school relationships; desire to become a full-service school; limited parent-training opportunities with limited participation; limited professional development opportunities; limited poverty discussion in professional learning communities; underuse of college partnerships; need for a mentoring program; need for programming to combat absenteeism; demand for additional early intervention programs; positive student-teacher relationships; a variety of opportunities for students of poverty to build confidence; teachers high expectations from teachers; importance given to enrichment opportunities; teaching strategies focused on active learning; assignment of small, meaningful doses of homework; limited tutoring opportunities; and use of multiple data-collection methods. Recommendations for improving how students of poverty are served include continuing to expand efforts concerning positive home-school relationships, investigating the possibility of becoming a full-service school, designing a powerful parent-training program, offering additional professional development training for teachers, developing poverty-related topics for professional learning communities, finding ways to improve partnerships with local colleges and universities, designing a quality mentoring program, finding creative ways to address absenteeism, finding additional means of providing early intervention, continuing to develop positive student-teacher relationships, finding additional ways to build confidence, maintaining high expectations of students of poverty, creating additional meaningful enrichment opportunities, searching for the best teaching strategies to improve learning, continuing to assign meaningful homework with assistance as needed, creating a comprehensive tutoring program, and collecting meaningful and useful data to help teachers increase students' achievement.

The purpose of this study was to determine if there was a difference between a student’s reading/language arts TCAP scale score and his or her lunch status for students in grades three, four, & five within two school systems in Tennessee. The population consisted of 2,442 students who were in grades three, four, and five during the 2014-2015 school year in a city school system in east Tennessee and a county school system in middle Tennessee. The Kruskal-Wallis H, a non-parametric test, was used to identify statistically significant differences in the medians of the reading/language arts TCAP scores across the three types of lunch payment status. The independent variable was the type of student lunch status (free, reduced, and full pay). The dependent variable was the reading/language arts TCAP scale score of students in grade three, four, and five. The quantitative findings revealed the relationship between student lunch status group and reading/language arts TCAP scale score was significant for all four research questions. In all analyses, the difference in the reading/language arts TCAP scale scores of students in the free lunch status group and the full pay lunch status group was significant. When the data from both school systems were combined, there was a significant difference in the scale scores between the free and full pay lunch status groups, the free and reduced lunch status groups, and the reduced and full pay lunch status groups.

Evidence suggests that principals' practices influence student achievement. The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the beliefs elementary school principals in the mid-Atlantic United States had about which leadership practices have been instrumental in reducing the achievement gap between economically-disadvantaged students and all other students at their schools. The leadership model that Kouzes and Posner developed, which identified 5 practices of exemplary leaders, served as the conceptual framework for this study. Eleven principals who were leaders at schools where the achievement gap in reading had been reduced compared with the state average were interviewed. A combination of a priori and open coding was used to support thematic analysis. Six leadership practices, aligned with transformational and instructional leadership practices, were identified as influencing student achievement positively. The participants indicated the importance of leading by example and developing positive relationships with all stakeholders and communicating and inspiring all stakeholders with their vision for their schools, believed in shared decision making and developing teacher leaders, and understood the value of risk-taking and innovation along with a strong instructional focus. The results of this study add to the research supporting the influence that principals have on student achievement by identifying practices principals could implement at their schools to increase student achievement. It is recommended that school division personnel and principal preparation program personnel use these results to inform their training programs and school improvement initiatives. Positive social change may occur when principals implement these 6 practices at their own schools, thereby increasing the reading achievement of economically-disadvantaged students.

This study investigates how socially and economically disadvantaged young people, living in a semi-rural, post-industrial Atlantic Canadian community, experience and perceive social and economic health -- defined as participants' sense of comfort and security that their social and economic needs are, and will continue to be, met in their community. I argue that social and educational policies and practices must reflect the realities of local citizens if they aim to interrupt regional health disparities. A key objective of this research is to expose and challenge gender, class, and regional inequalities through an analysis of young adults' social and economic health experiences and perceptions. Drawing primarily upon Pierre Bourdieu's (1990b; 2001)concepts -- habitus, field, and symbolic domination -- relations between gender, class,and historical circumstances theoretically inform this research. Employing a critical ethnographic methodological framework (Madison, 2005),experiences and perceptions of ten economically disadvantaged youth -- five women and five men, ages 19-30 -- were gathered through focus groups, individual interviews, participant observation, critical dialogue (using media to stimulate dialogue among participants), and an adaptation of photovoice (a technique combining photography and narrative). Results suggest that the social and economic health needs of economically disadvantaged young adults are not being met. They confirm Bourdieu's (1999a)assertion of an interrelationship between physical place and the positioning of agents in social fields. Participants navigate economic, cultural, and social fields, aware of their social positioning as they 'work' the fields in order to secure enough capital to 'get by'. Their struggles are examples of symbolic domination and suggest a significant psycho-social cost to young adults seeking social and economic health through various fields. Analyses of their experiences suggest a disjuncture between gendered identities ascribed to participants through historically-rooted habitus and contemporary social fields. Recommendations call for gender, class, and regional inequalities to be addressed through structural interventions and investment in long term community-based education that is integrated with local economic development initiatives. Furthermore, this research calls attention to how research agendas and procedures can actually reinforce marginalization, making it difficult for the voices of disadvantaged communities to enter into dominant public discourse.