This thesis has been a collaboration between the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) and Siemens Energy which invest in the research facility at KTH. The objective was to investigate the use of eddy current sensors in real-time monitoring of turbine blades. The main focus has been on finding a use for blade tip clearance and a correlation for the insufficient sampling that eddy current sensors suffer from. At the same time, it was desirable to also investigate the use of the same sampled data for blade tip vibration. The research on eddy current sensors is important for their relative low price compared to other instruments and how resistance it is to contamination found in turbines, enabling real-time monitoring.  The testing has been conducted at the Energy Technology department which utilizes a scaled version of a full-sized turbine to investigate performance measurements. It is scaled to have the same stage loading for both blisks investigated. Two different blisks have been used for this project, one with thicher but fewer blades and one with thinner but more blades. On each blisk different types of sampling have been done in order to capture suitable data for both tip timing and tip vibration. This resulted in sampling with static RPM and sweeps over certain regions as well as full sweeps from design RPM to standstill.  A computer model was developed to evaluate the sampled data. In the model, the sample points were interpolated to compensate for the insufficient sampling, enabling tip gap measurements. Measurements and calibration were done on the blisks for the possibility of using a compensation curve in order to be able to compensate for the signal error. The results show that eddy current sensors and setup used here have a good capability of capturing the tip clearance with precision in the range of hundreds of millimeter on the blisk with thicker blades and up to a certain rotational speed on the blisk with thinner blades. In regards to the tip vibration, eddy current system had problems capturing the time of arrival with sufficient precision correctly. / Den här uppsatsen har varit ett sammarbete mellan Kunglig Tekniska Högskolan (KTH) och Simens Energy vilka investerar i forskningen som bedrivs på KTH. Målet var att undersöka användningen av eddy current sensors för övervakning av turbinbliskar. Huvudfokus har varit att hitta användning av sensorerna för topspelsmätningar och ta fram en korregering av den otillräckliga insamlingen av data som eddy current sensorer lider av. Samtidigt var det önskvärt att samtidigt undersöka samma insamlade data för att utvärdera bladvibrationer. Forskning på eddy current sensorer är viktig för dess relativt låga pris jämfört med andra alternativ samt att de dess höga motståndskraft mot smuts som ofta finns i miljöer där turbiner används. Testerna har gjorts på instutitionen för Energiteknik vilka använder en nedskalad versioner av den verkliga storleken på turbinen för att utföra mätningar på. Två olika bliskar har använts för detta projekt, en med grövre men färre blad samt en med tunnare och fler blad. Stegbelastningen är dock samma för båda. På båda bladen har olika typer mätningar gjorts för att kunna fånga passade data för båda topspelsmätningar och bladvibrationer. Detta gav data med statiskt varvtal, långsamma svepningar över specialla regioner och svepningar över från designvarvtal ner till stillastående. En datormodell har utvecklats för utvärdera insamlade data. I modellen sker en interpolering som kompenserar för de låga antalet samplade punkter på bladet. Mätnigar och kalibreringar är gjorda på bliskarna för att skapa en kompenseringskurva åt signalfel i utdatan. Resultatet visar att eddy current systemet har goda möjligheter att visa rätt toppspel med god precition för blisken med tjocka blad och upp till ett visst varvtal på den med tunnare blad. När det kommer till bladvibrationer hade sensorerna och datormodellen svårt att fånga rätt ankomst tid för bladet med tillräckligt hög precision.

This thesis presents a method for optimizing cable configuration inside a large magnetic cylindrical steel casing, from the total ampacity point of view. The method is comprised of two main parts, namely: 1) analytically calculating the electromagnetic losses in the steel casing and sheathed cables, for an arbitrary cables configuration, and 2) implementing an algorithm for determining the optimal cables configuration to obtain the best total ampacity. The first part involves approximating the eddy current and hysteresis losses in the casing and cables. The calculation is based on the theory of images, which this thesis expands to apply to casings having both high magnetic permeability and high electric conductivity at the same time. The method of images, in combination with approximating the cable conductors and sheaths as multiple physical filaments, is used to compute the final current distributions in the cables and pipe and thus the associated losses. The accuracy of this computation is assessed against numerical solutions obtained using the Maxwell finite element program by Ansoft. Next, the optimal cable configuration is determined by applying a proposed two-level optimization algorithm. At the outer level, a combinatorial optimization based on a genetic algorithm explores the different possible configurations. The performance of every configuration is evaluated according to its total ampacity, which is calculated using a convex optimization algorithm. The convex optimization algorithm, which forms the inner level of the overall optimization procedure, is based on the barrier method. This proposed optimization procedure is tested for a duct bank installation containing twelve cables and fifteen ducts, comprising two circuits and two cables per phase, and compared with a brute force method of considering all possible configurations. The optimization process is also applied to an installation consisting of a single circuit inside a large magnetic steel casing.

La méthode des courants de Foucault (CF) est très largement utilisée en milieu industriel pour l’évaluation non destructive (END) de pièces ou de structures électriquement conductrices, parce qu’elle est sensible, robuste peu couteuse et non polluante. Toutefois, dans le cas général, l’évaluation quantitative des paramètres caractéristiques d’une structure est un problème difficile, d’une part parce que les données CF disponibles sont généralement incomplètes, d’autre part parce qu’il est nécessaire de faire appel à des modèle numériques élaborés pour rendre compte des interactions sonde / structure, et enfin, parce que le problème inverse consistant à estimer les paramètres de la structure à partir de la connaissance des interactions physiques et des données CF disponibles est « mal posé ».Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons au problème particulier de l’évaluation de jeux entre pièces dans un assemblage métallique. Pour contourner les difficultés liées à la mise en oeuvre de l’évaluation quantitative par CF, nous avons choisi de placer nos travaux dans un cadre multifréquence afin d’enrichir les données d’observation fournies par la sonde, et d’adopter une démarche consistant à élaborer des modèles comportementaux issus de l’analyse statistique des interactions sonde / structure. Partant de l’analyse de l’effet d’un jeu apparaissant entre les plaques d’un assemblage de plaques d’aluminium sur la variation de l’impédance normalisée de la sonde, menée expérimentalement et par simulations à l’aide de codes éléments finis, nous avons tout d’abord bâti un modèle comportemental approché d’interactions reposant sur la linéarité de la relation observée dans une bande de fréquences d’examen liée aux dimensions de la structure étudiée. Dans ce cadre, nous avons proposé, implanté et discuté des performances de plusieurs algorithmes de résolution du problème inverse, permettant d’estimer le jeu entre pièces et l’épaisseur de la pièce « cachée » de l’assemblage. Ensuite, nous avons étendu l’approche proposée à l’aide de réseaux de neurones artificiels, puis appliqué la méthode comportementale proposée à un second problème : celui de la caractérisation de fissures de fatigue réelles dans des pièces massives. Les résultats obtenus inclinent à considérer que la démarche proposée est généralisable à d’autres configurations en END par CF. / The eddy current (EC) method is widely used in the industry for the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of electrically conductive structures, because it is sensitive, robust, cost effective and non polluting. However, in the general case, the quantitative evaluation of the parameters of a structure is a difficult problem, because the available EC data are generally incomplete, because it is necessary to have numerical models developed to account for the probe / structure interactions, and finally, because the inverse problem which consists in estimating the parameters of an inspected structure from the knowledge of those physical interactions and the available EC data is "ill-posed".In this work, we focus on the evaluation of air gaps between the parts of a metallic assembly. In order to cope with the difficulties associated with the implementation of an EC quantitative evaluation, we choose to use a multi-frequency approach so as to increase the data provided by the EC probe, and to build behavioral models from the statistical analysis of the probe / structure interactions. Experimental data and simulated data based on finite elements modeling are analyzed. A first approach behavioral model of the probe/structure interactions is deduced from these analyses, which is based on the linear relationship observed (in a particular excitation an frequency band depending on the dimensions of the studied structure) between the variations of the sensor normalized impedance and the air gap to evaluate. Moreover, we propose, implement and discuss the performances of several algorithms designed to solve the inverse problem dealing with the estimation of both the multilayered structure air gap and "hidden" plate thicknesses. Then, we extend the proposed multi-frequency behavioral approach thanks to artificial neural networks, and we apply the proposed behavioral method to a second problem : that of the characterization of real fatigue cracks in metallic massive parts. The obtained results let the generalization of the proposed approach to other EC NDE configurations to be envisaged.

Os tubos de Geradores de Vapor em Reatores Nucleares do tipo PWR são submetidos a diferentes níveis de tensões e carregamento em altas temperaturas, reduzindo sua vida útil devido o surgimento de defeitos e corrosão. A inspeção por Correntes Parasitas é um ensaio não destrutivo usado para diagnosticar defeitos de corrosão e descontinuidades na superfície externa e interna em tubos de trocadores de calor. Esses tubos estão sujeitos a danos por diferentes mecanismos de degradação mecânica e química, tais como trincas por fadiga e corrosão sob tensão. Os sinais de inspeção por Correntes Parasitas são afetados por diferentes ruídos dificultando sua análise pelo inspetor. Esse trabalho apresenta os resultados da análise dos sinais de Correntes Parasitas usando a Transformada de Hilbert-Huang (THH) funcionando como filtro de ruídos (De-noising), como uma técnica alternativa de processamento e análise de sinais. A Transformada de Hilbert-Huang teve esse nome atribuído pela agência espacial norte-americana (NASA) para o resultado da reunião de dois processos, um método de decomposição empiricamente modal (Empirical Mode Decomposition EMD), seguido da análise espectral de Hilbert (Hilbert Spectral Analysis HSA). Os sinais de inspeção por correntes parasitas possuem características de transiente, não estacionário e não linear. A transformada de Hilbert-Huang aplicada neste trabalho forneceu dois recursos alternativos em processamento de sinais; o pré-processamento que funcionou como filtro de ruídos, e outro de análise de sinais, responsável pela identificação das características tempo-frequência-energia do sinal. / The nuclear power plant steam generator tubes are subjected to different levels of stress and loading at high temperatures, reducing its lifetime due to the development of defects and corrosion. The Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is a nondestructive testing used to diagnose defects of corrosion and discontinuities in the inner and outer surface of heat exchanger tubes. These tubes are subject to failure by different mechanisms of chemical and mechanical degradation such as fatigue and stress corrosion crack. The ECT signals are affected by different noises making the analysis a difficult task to the inspector. This dissertation presents the results of the main characteristics from the ECT signals using the Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT) as an alternative method for the processing and signal analysis. The Hilbert-Huang Transform has its name given by the American National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA, as the result of Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) and the Hilbert Spectral Analysis (HSA) methods. The Eddy Current signals are transient, nonstationary and nonlinear. The Hilbert-Huang Transform applied in this work provided two alternative proceedings in signal processing, one in signal pre-processing acting as noise filter (De-noising) and another as signal analysis, which identifies the characteristics of signal time-frequency-energy.

Os tubos de Geradores de Vapor em Reatores Nucleares do tipo PWR são submetidos a diferentes níveis de tensões e carregamento em altas temperaturas, reduzindo sua vida útil devido o surgimento de defeitos e corrosão. A inspeção por Correntes Parasitas é um ensaio não destrutivo usado para diagnosticar defeitos de corrosão e descontinuidades na superfície externa e interna em tubos de trocadores de calor. Esses tubos estão sujeitos a danos por diferentes mecanismos de degradação mecânica e química, tais como trincas por fadiga e corrosão sob tensão. Os sinais de inspeção por Correntes Parasitas são afetados por diferentes ruídos dificultando sua análise pelo inspetor. Esse trabalho apresenta os resultados da análise dos sinais de Correntes Parasitas usando a Transformada de Hilbert-Huang (THH) funcionando como filtro de ruídos (De-noising), como uma técnica alternativa de processamento e análise de sinais. A Transformada de Hilbert-Huang teve esse nome atribuído pela agência espacial norte-americana (NASA) para o resultado da reunião de dois processos, um método de decomposição empiricamente modal (Empirical Mode Decomposition EMD), seguido da análise espectral de Hilbert (Hilbert Spectral Analysis HSA). Os sinais de inspeção por correntes parasitas possuem características de transiente, não estacionário e não linear. A transformada de Hilbert-Huang aplicada neste trabalho forneceu dois recursos alternativos em processamento de sinais; o pré-processamento que funcionou como filtro de ruídos, e outro de análise de sinais, responsável pela identificação das características tempo-frequência-energia do sinal. / The nuclear power plant steam generator tubes are subjected to different levels of stress and loading at high temperatures, reducing its lifetime due to the development of defects and corrosion. The Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is a nondestructive testing used to diagnose defects of corrosion and discontinuities in the inner and outer surface of heat exchanger tubes. These tubes are subject to failure by different mechanisms of chemical and mechanical degradation such as fatigue and stress corrosion crack. The ECT signals are affected by different noises making the analysis a difficult task to the inspector. This dissertation presents the results of the main characteristics from the ECT signals using the Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT) as an alternative method for the processing and signal analysis. The Hilbert-Huang Transform has its name given by the American National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA, as the result of Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMD) and the Hilbert Spectral Analysis (HSA) methods. The Eddy Current signals are transient, nonstationary and nonlinear. The Hilbert-Huang Transform applied in this work provided two alternative proceedings in signal processing, one in signal pre-processing acting as noise filter (De-noising) and another as signal analysis, which identifies the characteristics of signal time-frequency-energy.

Superligas à base de níquel vêm sendo extensivamente utilizadas em diversas aplicações nas indústrias devido ao excelente comportamento mecânico e anticorrosivo. No entanto, essas ligas possuem certas particularidades que levam à necessidade de desenvolvimento de técnicas de inspeção e caracterização metalúrgica, como forma de garantir a integridade estrutural dos componentes fabricados com essas ligas. Neste trabalho, a técnica de correntes parasitas foi aplicada à superligas à base de níquel com duas propostas distintas: 1) Em um primeiro momento foi realizado o estudo da evolução microestrutural da liga Inconel 718 durante o processo de envelhecimento através da combinação do ensaio por correntes parasitas, análise de difração de raios-X, análise metalográfica, medidas de dureza e tamanho de grão. As medidas foram realizadas em amostras submetidas a diferentes ciclos de tratamentos térmicos variando entre 620-1035°C. Os resultados mostraram que as diferentes microestruturas do Inconel 718 têm efeitos distintos na condutividade elétrica quando medidos através da técnica de correntes parasitas. A influência da microestrutura na condutividade pode ser mostrada sendo devido à competição de dois efeitos sobre o espalhamento de elétrons: a purificação da matriz e a morfologia, distribuição e tamanho dos precipitados. A combinação dos valores de dureza e condutividade elétrica provou ser uma forma rápida e prática de determinar o nível de envelhecimento da liga; 2) Em um segundo momento foi desenvolvido um processo de otimização de sensores através de modelagem por elementos finitos (MEF). Através de uma metodologia de otimização, os parâmetros de construção e operação de um sensor foram otimizados para inspeção de defeitos superficiais e subsuperficiais esperados em materiais cladeados com Inconel 625. O sensor com a geometria ótima foi construído e testado a fim de verificar a eficiência do processo de otimização. Uma ótima correlação entre os resultados numéricos e experimentais foi encontrada e o sensor ótimo se mostrou eficiente na inspeção de pequenos defeitos superficiais e subsuperficiais na liga Inconel 625 quando operado nas frequências apropriadas. / Nickel-based superalloys have been extensively used in various industries due to its unique mechanical and corrosion behavior. However, these alloys show particular characteristics which lead to the need for specific inspection and metallurgical characterization techniques in order to ensure the structural integrity of components manufactured from these alloys. In this work , the eddy current technique was applied to nickel-base superalloys with two aims: 1 ) Firstly, the microstructural evolution of Inconel 718 during aging processes has been studied through a combination of eddy current testing, X-ray diffraction analysis, metallography, hardness and grain size measurements. Measurements were carried out in samples subjected to different heat treatment cycles between 620-1035°C. Results show that different microstructures of Inconel 718 have a distinguishable effect on electrical conductivity when this is measured through an appropriately sensitive technique (i.e. eddy current testing). The influence of microstructure on conductivity could be shown to be due to the competition between two effects on the scattering of electrons: matrix purification and precipitate size, distribution and morphology. A combination of hardness values and electrical properties proved to be a fast and practical way of determining the stage of aging of the alloy; 2) An optimization method of eddy current sensor design was developed through finite element modeling (FEM). Through a methodology of optimization, the construction and operation parameters of the sensor were optimized for inspection of superficial and subsuperficial defect, commonly found in weld overlay Inconel 625 claddings. A prototype of this sensor with the optimum geometry was built and tested on blocks identical to those considered in the models in order to verify the efficiency of the optimization process. A very good agreement between numerical and experimental results was found. Moreover, the optimal sensor was efficient to detect small surface and subsurface defects in Inconel 625 when operated at appropriate frequencies.

While evaluating the depth of corrosive defect through Remote Field Eddy Current (RFEC) Testing technology, the researcher tried to investigate the signals of supporting plate which may produce variations by the thickness of supporting plate, diameter of tube hole in supporting plate, the value of crevice between tube and tube hole and tube wall thickness. Errors of evaluation of defect depth may consequently be identified or measured by the variations of the support plate signal. This study explores the effects of above four factors by experiments and an analysis of variance in statistics. By the analysis of experimental results, the researcher found the four influential factors would cause angle deviation of supporting plate signals. Except the factor of tube wall thickness, the deviation is not so substantial that the difference of evaluation in depth was consequently fallen into an acceptable range of engineering practices. When utilizing the remote field eddy current testing technique to test inservice tubes, the researcher found the thickness of inservice tube is normally different from the specified thickness of a standard tube. This variation consequently resulting in an evaluation curve produced by a standard tube may not lead to proper assessment of defects in inservice tube. To deal with the problem many researchers used a frequency compensation method to compensate for the evaluation error contributed by the variation of tube thickness on the basis of the standard ASTM E2096-00(2000). But the use of the frequency compensation method did not measure the inservice tube thickness and thus produced a drawback of consuming much time for the adjustment steps of compensation. Therefore, a mathematical compensation method was introduced in this study for the compensation of thickness variation derived from skin depth theory. This method in the present experiment is proven to be both feasible and reasonable through the derivation of the methodology. Generally, this study aims to apply the mathematical compensation method to overcome the drawback of frequency compensation method and to solve the problem of the difficulty in measuring inservice tube wall thickness in heat exchanger bundles.

In this research, in order to realize such nanolaminated magnetic cores for high frequency and high power conversion, the following key tasks have been accomplished: 1) electrodeposition of metallic alloy materials such as NiFe, CoNiFe, and anisotropic CoNiFe; 2) development of new fabrication technologies to realize nanolaminated cores based on metallic alloy electrodeposition; 3) reliable characterization of the structural, magnetic, and electrical properties of the nanolaminated metallic alloy cores; 4) development of microfabricated inductor windings to integrate the nanolaminated cores; 5) demonstration of high-frequency and high-flux ultracompact DC-DC power conversion using inductors integrated with nanolaminated metallic alloy cores. By achieving these tasks, nanolaminated cores comprising tens to hundreds of layers of metallic alloy films (Ni80Fe20 and Co44Ni37Fe19) has been developed. The fabricated nanolaminated core consists of sufficiently thin nanolaminations (100 – 1000 nm) that can suppress eddy currents in the MHz range, while simultaneously achieving the overall magnetic thickness (35 – 2000 µm) such that substantial power can be handled. The nanolaminated metallic alloy cores were further integrated into microfabricated inductors using CMOS-compatible fabrication processes. Finally, an ultracompact DC-DC buck converter with the nanolaminated metallic alloy cores has been developed on PCB having footprint of 14 × 7.1 mm2. The input voltage of the converter varied from 30 to 70 V and the output voltage was fixed at 20 V. The converter operated with output power of approximately 11 W and the switching frequencies of 0.7 – 1.4 MHz, demonstrating conversion efficiency of 94.2% at 30 V input and 80.8% at 60 V input.

We consider the problem of extracting a specific feature from a noisy signal generated by a multi-channels Remote Field Eddy Current Sensor. The sensor is installed on a mobile robot whose mission is the detection of anomalous regions in metal pipelines. Given the presence of noise that characterizes the data series, anomaly signals could be masked by noise and therefore difficult to identify in some instances. In order to enhance signal peaks that potentially identify anomalies we consider an entropy filter built on a-posteriori probability density functions associated with data series. Thresholds based on the Neyman-Pearson criterion for hypothesis testing are derived. The algorithmic tool is applied to the analysis of data from a portion of pipeline with a set of anomalies introduced at predetermined locations. Critical areas identifying anomalies capture the set of damaged locations, demonstrating the effectiveness of the filter in detection with Remote Field Eddy Current Sensor.

This thesis presents a method for optimizing cable configuration inside a large magnetic cylindrical steel casing, from the total ampacity point of view. The method is comprised of two main parts, namely: 1) analytically calculating the electromagnetic losses in the steel casing and sheathed cables, for an arbitrary cables configuration, and 2) implementing an algorithm for determining the optimal cables configuration to obtain the best total ampacity. The first part involves approximating the eddy current and hysteresis losses in the casing and cables. The calculation is based on the theory of images, which this thesis expands to apply to casings having both high magnetic permeability and high electric conductivity at the same time. The method of images, in combination with approximating the cable conductors and sheaths as multiple physical filaments, is used to compute the final current distributions in the cables and pipe and thus the associated losses. The accuracy of this computation is assessed against numerical solutions obtained using the Maxwell finite element program by Ansoft. Next, the optimal cable configuration is determined by applying a proposed two-level optimization algorithm. At the outer level, a combinatorial optimization based on a genetic algorithm explores the different possible configurations. The performance of every configuration is evaluated according to its total ampacity, which is calculated using a convex optimization algorithm. The convex optimization algorithm, which forms the inner level of the overall optimization procedure, is based on the barrier method. This proposed optimization procedure is tested for a duct bank installation containing twelve cables and fifteen ducts, comprising two circuits and two cables per phase, and compared with a brute force method of considering all possible configurations. The optimization process is also applied to an installation consisting of a single circuit inside a large magnetic steel casing.