Studies of classroom talk have not been able to identify the communicative potential of the ESL speaking class, the type or genre of discourse generally in use in such classrooms, or the role of the textbook in generating speaking opportunities. Therefore, the purpose of this research project was to examine an ESL speaking class from a particular social interaction perspective so that the social and academic processes in which the learners participate to reach the communicative goals of the lessons, and the instructional processes that create speaking opportunities could be taken into account. Ethnographic techniques were used in collecting classroom-based data. The researcher videotaped a seven-week course, took field notes, and interviewed the teacher and the students. / The research revealed that the ESL speaking class consisted of a constant macrostructure that contained three distinct structural parts. These three parts had constant and variable instructional phases where students' speaking opportunities took place. There were also two major categories of speaking activities: teacher-generated and student-generated. Teacher-generated speaking opportunities were both formal and informal. Formal opportunities were in the form of planned speaking activities whereas the informal opportunities were instances of talk that were not related to the academic activities of the lesson. Student-generated speaking opportunities helped them construct the lesson with the teacher. Because of the institutional nature of the ESL speaking class, however, student-generated speaking opportunities were fewer than those generated by the teacher. In addition, students' speaking opportunities that overlapped with the teacher's instruction or did not meet her expectations for participation were sanctioned. / The research also revealed that the textbook was used as a source of activities and a skeleton for thematic organization. During textbook activities learners engaged in talk through the teacher's mediation of the text. The use of the textbook during speaking activities had an impact on learners' verbal and nonverbal interaction and language use. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 55-09, Section: A, page: 2752. / Major Professor: Frank B. Brooks. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--The Florida State University, 1994.

The purpose of this study was to compare two instructional strategies using cooperative learning and interactive video instruction, and to measure the effect of these strategies on achievement, amount of invested mental effort, and attitudes. In the individualized video treatment, subjects worked on an interactive video lesson on the German language, then participated in a cooperative learning session. In the cooperative interactive video treatment, subjects worked together with the interactive video for the entire instructional session. The study was conducted during 10 instructional sessions spanning five weeks. / Eighty-nine college freshman and sophomores were randomly assigned to the treatment groups. Achievement was measured by performance on three written dialogues constructed by cooperative groups during three of the 10 sessions, and by a posttest on German language listening, writing, and translating skills. Performance on the dialogues was assessed by a type (number of different words used) and token (number of words) analysis. Amount of invested mental effort was measured with a post-study questionnaire. Attitudes were measured with a post-study questionnaire and an opinion survey. / Wilcoxon rank sum tests on the types and tokens in the dialogues, and t-tests on the posttest scores, revealed no significant differences between the treatments on achievement. T-tests found no differences between the treatments on the amount of invested mental effort, and attitudes toward interactive video instruction and language learning. The cooperative interactive video treatment showed significantly higher attitudes toward cooperative learning, which was contrary to the pre-experimental hypothesis. The opinion questionnaires reflected generally positive attitudes in the cooperative interactive video treatment, and a bipolarity of attitudes, negative and positive, toward the individualized treatment. / The results suggest that conducting interactive video instruction and cooperative learning in sequence, versus conducting this method and medium simultaneously, does not influence achievement in foreign language acquisition. The findings reinforce the recommendation of numerous researchers to install two position interactive video workstations, with their inherent cost savings over individual workstations, as they may be equally effective. Further research is recommended to determine how mature learners are best grouped when using technology-based instructional environments and cooperative learning. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 57-01, Section: A, page: 0180. / Major Professor: Walter Wager. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--The Florida State University, 1996.

The purposes of this study were to conduct a content validation of braille transcription on the National Literary Braille Competency Test (NLBCT) and investigate the teaching and use of braille-related communication skills. Print questionnaires for teachers and braille questionnaires for consumers were developed, reviewed by teachers or consumers in the field of visual disabilities, field tested, and revised accordingly. Questionnaires were mailed to subjects with follow-up correspondences soliciting completion of the documents for collection of data on the use of braille-related communication skills by teachers of students with visual impairments and blind consumers. Two hundred thirty-three teachers of visually impaired in Florida and 531 consumers in the United States were the pool of participants in the study. / The major findings in this study are: (1) The skill of braille transcription using a braillewriter or a slate and stylus without the use of braille reference materials are not valid requirements of the NLBCT; (2) Teachers spend one to two hours a week teaching use of one or more of the following: braillewriter, computer, tape recorder, and typewriter. Few teachers teach use of the slate and stylus and reader service; (3) Consumers use a variety of braille-related communication devices. The most popular devices include the braillewriter, reader service, writer service, and slate and stylus; and (4) There is a positive association between the braille-related communication skills that teachers teach and consumers use for all skills except the use of slate and stylus and use of reader service. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 56-11, Section: A, page: 4347. / Co-Major Professors: Gideon R. Jones; Bruce Menchetti. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--The Florida State University, 1995.

This research describes the effects of various amounts of CLAST instruction on students' performance on the CLAST essay test and on their development as freshman writers. Four groups of students who received various amounts of CLAST essay instruction during their freshman year at Florida State University were studied. Their CLAST essay scores as well as scores they received on CLAST facsimile essays were analyzed along with information obtained from questionnaires, attitude surveys, additional pieces of controlled writing, and personal interviews of case-study students. / Analysis of data indicates that instruction in CLAST essay skills does not ensure higher CLAST essay scores and that CLAST instruction should not be made the focus of freshman composition. Students' attitudes toward their development as writers is negatively affected when freshman writing courses focus on the limited, product-based criteria CLAST essay graders use when scoring student essays. / Data analysis also indicates that process-based writing instruction does not ensure that students will take their papers through recursive stages of drafting and revising when they are given a choice of composing strategies. Unless student writers are involved with the subject about which they are writing, it is highly unlikely that they will put anything more than minimal time, energy, or thought into their writing. In order to become involved with their writing, students must view writing as a worthwhile activity that helps them grow and develop as individuals. Writing must be taught as something more than a necessary skill which students will be required to use in college courses and on various competency tests. If students are to come to view composing as a valuable tool they can use in many areas of their lives, writing must be taught as a way of thinking and communicating. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 52-03, Section: A, page: 0827. / Major Professor: John Fenstermaker. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--The Florida State University, 1990.

The influence of two instructional methods, the Constrictive-Interactionist approach (C-I) and the Traditional Process approach (T-P), on student writing was determined by evaluating the post test essays of sixty-five ENG 101 students for overall writing quality using holistic scoring. The products were then analyzed further for specific content features which were emphasized during the treatment and were particular to the essay form. / A significant difference was found between pre- and post tests of individual students regardless of treatment. However, there was a much greater increase in mean scores for the experimental group (C-I), with a mean gain of.78, than the reference group (T-P), with a mean gain of.17. Twenty-four percent of the scores in the T-P classes decreased pre- to post test, while only three percent of the scores decreased in the C-I sections. In the C-I essays there was clear evidence of the evaluation criteria, especially that of well-told meaningful story and clear indication of the event's significance. Insubstantial evidence of the criteria was found in the T-P essays. / A descriptive analysis of the treatments was conducted to inductively discover meaning-making patterns of language: specifically content, structure and function. In the C-I classes the evaluation criteria comprised the content, the function was to explicitly negotiate the meaning of the criteria considering form and function and the structure involved student and teacher interacting to reach consensus on meaning. The function of the T-P instruction was to teach activities and were teacher directed with the teacher's interpretation of meaning. / Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 53-02, Section: A, page: 0454. / Major Professor: Carolyn L. Piazza. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--The Florida State University, 1991.

Despite the extensive research conducted on second language (L2) learning over the years, there is no emerging distinct choice of L2 learning approach or strategy that single-handedly facilitates beginning second language learning. Research that seek to find out how beginning L2 learning is best facilitated could make language learning more effective and help retain students who drop-out. This investigation was undertaken as an action research study. It sought to investigate which L2 learning strategy, oral or writing, is a better introduction of French as a L2. Participants involved in the study were beginning students in an Oral class and in a Writing class. Language performance tests, attitude surveys, interview, and journals were used to collect data. The study involved qualitative, quantitative, and a case study. No significant difference was found between oral and writing strategy introduction of L2 French for beginners in reading, vocabulary, and composition. However, learners in the Oral class did slightly better than the Writing class in listening activities. Role-playing and interviewing were two distinct positive teaching approaches that emerged after the treatment.

The current study sought to discover the impact of uncontracted braille in early stages of learning compared to contracted braille. Eight students who began learning uncontracted braille participated, and an informal reading inventory test was administered to determine their reading level, word recognition skill, and reading comprehension. Two pages of braille writing samples generated by the students were collected to find out types and frequencies of braille errors. Eight students who began learning contracted braille were matched with those who began learning uncontracted braille on four variables: school setting, gender, current levels of reading on students' Individual Education Programs (IEPs), and chronological ages. In addition, five students who began learning uncontracted braille and five teachers with experience teaching uncontracted braille from the beginning were interviewed by telephone. Using an independent group t test, it was found that the students performed equally well in reading speed, types and frequencies of braille errors, and word recognition skill whether they began with uncontracted or contracted braille. In addition, it was demonstrated that the students who began learning uncontracted braille exhibited better comprehension skill than those who began learning contracted braille Five students interviewed for the current study indicated that they began learning braille before they entered elementary school. They reported that transition from uncontracted to contracted braille took different lengths of time. Uncontracted braille was a motivational factor for family members to acquire braille skills. On the other hand, five teachers who were interviewed reported that professional journals and contact with professionals were the sources supporting teaching in uncontracted braille. Teachers were motivated to teach uncontracted braille because they believed it would be helpful for students with visual impairments who had additional disabilities to acquire braille skills for greater consistency. Two braille teachers reported that the use of uncontracted braille was helpful in collaboration with the classroom teachers because the students could receive prompt feedback from the classroom teachers. Overall, the use of uncontracted braille from the beginning of braille instruction did not present statistical differences among variables. It was found that interviewed individuals had positive experiences regarding the use of uncontracted braille.

Schrier and Hammadou (1994) assert that in order to evaluate effective foreign language (FL) teaching, attributes of effective teaching should first be identified, should be agreed upon as being worth evaluating, should be identified on repeated occasions, and should be proved worthwhile in many settings. The more that is known about successful FL teaching and learning, the more likely FL teachers will be to create models for FL teacher preparation and evaluation that implement relevant behaviors and attitudes of effective FL teaching. The purpose of this study was to investigate teacher perceptions concerning the teaching behaviors and attitudes that contribute to effective FL teaching and learning. The data was collected by means of a questionnaire to which 457 post-secondary FL teachers of Spanish, French, and German who are members of ACTFL responded (the response rate was 45.7%). The 80-item questionnaire elicited responses to FL teaching behaviors and attitudes on a Likert-type scale from 1 (not important at all for effective FL teaching) to 5 (essential for effective FL teaching), based on teachers' perceptions regarding how important each attribute is for effective teaching. Based on current research on second language acquisition (SLA), on pedagogical theories underlying current teaching methodologies, and on teaching behaviors and attitudes found to be effective in the field of general education, various teaching behaviors and attitudes of effective FL teachers were identified for inclusion on the questionnaire. The results indicate that there is emerging professional consensus regarding a number of teacher behaviors and attitudes related to FL teaching. This study contributes to the knowledge of what acceptable classroom teaching behavior is. The more that is known about successful FL teaching and learning, the more likely FL teachers, administrators, and curriculum developers will be able to create models for FL teacher preparation and evaluation that reflect effective behaviors and attitudes for FL teaching.

The purpose of this study was to contribute to a better understanding of nonnative English speaking students' interlanguage pragmatics in written discourse. It examined whether the types of redundancy found in second language (L2) learners' written English discourse may be explained by a lack of pragmatic knowledge, and used the theoretical framework of Sperber and Wilson's (1986) Relevance Theory. The particular type of pragmatic knowledge examined was the appropriate use of contextual information assumed to be manifest between the writer (i.e. the student) and the reader (i.e. the instructor). The subjects were 40 nonnative (NNS) and 34 native (NS) English speaking college students enrolled in freshman composition courses. They wrote essays on two topics that were selected carefully to manipulate the degrees of mutually manifest contextual information. The introduction section of each essay was submitted to an initial quantitative analysis. The results indicated that: (1) The mean length of the NNS essays was greater than that of the NS essays on both topics, and the difference on topic one reached a statistically significant level (p < 0.05), (2) The difference between the mean length of the NS essays on topics one and two was statistically significant (topic one<topic two, p < 0.01) whereas the difference between the mean length of the NNS essays on topics one and two was not statistically significant, (3) There were more than twice as many instances of unnecessary types of redundancy in the NNS essays than in the NS essays, and (4) No statistically significant differences were found among the NNS essays in different L1 sub-groups, with relative terseness found in Hindi/Urdu dominant bilingual subjects in the Indian L1 sub-group as an exception. In addition to the initial analysis, this study also examined the relationships between holistically judged essay quality and (1) the length of introduction, (2) L2 learners' linguistic knowledge, and (3) L2 learners' length of stay in the U.S. It further compared the linguistic features of the NNS and NS essays in high, intermediate, and low score ranges.

The United States society is becoming increasingly diverse due to the arrival of large numbers of immigrant groups. Many of these children do not speak English as their first language. However, the U.S. Department of Education (1995) reports that only 15% of English language learners (ELLS) nationwide are educated in programs designed specifically for second-language learners. With English-only educational policies in a number of states, ELLs will likely be put in mainstream classrooms in which they may not receive enough language learning support. In most cases, a teacher in a mainstream classroom is not equipped with the proper ESL education to support ELLs through their transitional phases. It is therefore necessary to research the process of ELLs acquiring English in a mainstream classroom. This ethnographic case study examines the nature of a novice English learner's apprenticeship and her experiences in the process. Ying, an 8-year-old, whose native languages are Taiwanese and Mandarin, arrived in the U.S. 2 months prior to the start of this study. Ethnographic approaches--participant observations, interviews, and artifact collection--are utilized to answer two research questions. The research questions that guide this study are: (1) what is the nature of apprenticeship for a novice ESL learner in a mainstream classroom, and (2) how does a novice ESL learner experience the process of apprenticeship within the contexts of the home, school and community. The findings for the first question document the kinds of assistance and resources Ying received from the community, the school, the class, and the family, and the influence of the assistance and resources on Ying's development of English. The findings of the second question include Ying's significant roles as a collaborator, a resource seeker, a demonstrator, and a contributor in her class and school communities. She utilizes the strategies of tolerating ambiguity, remaining confident, connecting schoolwork with her real life experience, and making good use of resources in the process of learning. Based on these findings, the researcher discusses their theoretical contributions and pedagogical implications of sociocultural theory, comprehensible input, and balance of cognitive and situated perspectives in second language acquisition research.