An emerging theory of short-term memory, called fuzzy trace theory (FTT), postulates a link between memory and reasoning ability that might explain the relationship of performances on memory span tasks to other measures of intelligence. Two key assumptions regarding the encoding and retrieval of information in short-term memory (STM) are central to FTT. First, stored memory traces are assumed to vary along a continuum of verbatim detail to gist. Second, retrieval from STM is assumed to vary along a continuum of simple to reconstructive readout. The three experiments reported in this dissertation were designed to examine these two assumptions regarding encoding and retrieval by examining subjects' performances on memory span tasks. Memory span was the measure of choice for this series of experiments because span tasks have long been considered a pure measures of memory. Recall of items (item memory) and ordering of items for serial recall (order memory) were factored and treated as independent memory processes. The findings in the three experiments indicated that item memory relied more on simple readout of verbatim detail, while order memory relied on reconstruction from gist. More development was observed for order memory, indicating that age changes in memory span performance may be caused by development of gist extraction and reconstructive processes. It was suggested that children's ability to order items is the component of serial recall that explains the link between memory span performance and other measures of intelligence.

Grade retention continues to be a common educational practice in the United States. Educators have typically used this procedure as a means of addressing academic deficits demonstrated by students. Although numerous research studies have been conducted to examine the efficacy of grade retention, conflicting results are reported at the first grade level. Few studies have addressed the issue of ethnicity and grade retention, although retainees are typically minority students. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of first grade retention on second grade achievement in a predominately Hispanic population. In addition, this study examined the effects of retention based on gender. Seventy-three students who were retained in the first grade served as the subjects in this study. Each subject was matched with two promoted control students based on reading achievement, math achievement, language achievement, ethnicity, sex, birthdate, socioeconomic status and primary language of the home. Academic achievement was compared at the end of the students' second grade years. Results indicated that the reading, language and math scores of the retained subjects and the reading, language and math scores of the nonretained counterparts did not differ significantly. Differences of retention benefits based on ethnicity and gender were not evident. The results were discussed in relation to results obtained from previous research studies. Investigation of alternative strategies to address student academic deficits was indicated.

In this study, six educationally disadvantaged children were taught beginning letter sounds under two teaching conditions. After a baseline of no intervention, a single subject alternating treatments design was used to compare contingent elaborations and token reinforcement within children. Performance between treatments was analyzed in terms of cumulative number of letter sounds learned, total number of letter sounds learned, and maintenance of learning. Token probes were implemented to ascertain whether tokens remained functionally reinforcing over the course of the study. Five children responded to treatment over baseline. Three of these, characterized by above average Wepman auditory discrimination scores, performed better under elaborations until the final third of the study when differential performance between treatments was less pronounced. Remaining subjects, characterized by below average auditory discrimination, showed similar learning under both treatments or, as in the case of one child, no learning. No differences in maintenance were observed. Implications for the classroom and suggestions for further research were discussed.

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This study examines the self concept and interpersonal relations of 409 Hispanic and Non-Hispanic adolescents in grades five and eight. Results reveal no significant differences in global self concept of Hispanic and Non-Hispanic adolescents. Fifth graders have significantly better global self concepts than eighth graders. There are no significant differences in the interpersonal relations of the Hispanic and Non-Hispanic adolescents. Fifth graders report significantly better Total Interpersonal Relations, as well as better relations with Mother and Teacher. Relations with Father are significantly better for males and for fifth graders. Significant grade interactions are seen for relations with Male Peers and Female Peers. A multiple regression revealed no clear shift from parents to peers as reference group influencing self concept.

In this study, I examined high school students' level of engagement by exploring the relationship between students' phenomenological perceptions of fairness and their levels of engagement. This involved collecting and analyzing data based upon engagement and fairness scales that were created by a research team. Data were descriptively analyzed and factored to identify potentially distinct dimensions of fairness and engagement. Analysis included a correlation of four dimensions of fairness and five dimensions of engagement. Fairness and engagement were significantly related in almost all dimensions. One distinct finding was that "personal" perceptions of fairness were more correlated with engagement than other dimensions of fairness. When personal fairness was partialled out of the correlation, other dimensions of fairness failed to relate significantly with engagement. This suggests that personal experience of fairness has a more significant and salient affect on levels of engagement than any other identified dimension of fairness.

The purpose of this study was to determine if college adolescents are an emerging risk group for acquiring HIV/AIDS. A somewhat diversified sample (70% white, 2% African American, 7% Asian American, 13% Hispanic, and 8% Other) of 172 college students age 18-24, completed questionnaires assessing: knowledge of HIV/AIDS, risk-taking behavior or attitudes, identity and sensation seeking. Despite high levels of knowledge (consistent with previous studies), many misconceptions (e.g. believing mosquitoes can pass the HIV virus) and high risk habits (not using a condom every time when engaging in sex) established this sample as putting themselves at risk for HIV/AIDS. A proposed relationship between either identity and risk-taking or risk-taking and sensation seeking showed no practical significance.

<p> The history of equine-assisted psychotherapy (EAP) is visited in this dissertation, as well as different types of equestrian therapy programs that are being used in a variety of settings. Although there is limited research available regarding these types of studies, the research that does exist promotes an awareness and need for different therapeutic treatments, while acknowledging and promoting the benefits of equestrian psychotherapy. The purpose of this applied research study was to develop a proposed EAP school-based intervention program designed to work as a collaborative therapeutic program, using mental health workers, school personnel, and other paraprofessionals, working with children with emotional and behavioral disorders, in rural community public school settings. An evaluation of the program's efficacy by validity judges concluded that this program is potentially effective for working with these populations in this setting.</p>

<p> Key concepts in liberation psychology describe the treatment and regard for children in public school: oppression, colonization, hegemony. This study asked whether public education is experienced as oppressive, creating students who are colonized. Through a frame of liberation psychology and a depth psychological perspective, the study examines whether children are systematically "civilized" by the dominant adult population. Is the indigenous child&mdash;the child born with unique intelligence, knowledge, and desire to learn&mdash;systematically stifled within the existing educational paradigm? </p><p> Findings revealed that several practices at the Middle School enhanced learning, personal empowerment, self-esteem, and happiness, and were termed Liberatory. Most significant was whole-child value, where nonacademic strengths, intrinsic worth, and creativity were valued. Mutual, positive, connected relationship between teacher and student was primary, enhanced by trips outside of school with faculty, emphasizing character and life lessons. Acceptance permeated the peer environment. </p><p> Practices at the public High School, referred to as Oppressive, contributed to alienation, separation, fear, boredom, and disincentive to learning. Focus on right answers on tests encouraged memorization/forgetting, paradoxically described as "academic" by students, and creativity was not valued. Students cited teacher overwhelm as the main reason for the absence of connected relationship between educators and students. Judgment permeated the peer environment. </p><p> Participants were 10 females between 18 and 20 years old who attended a private middle school that practiced humanistic, whole-child learning, and a public high school in Santa Barbara, CA. A Likert survey asked 25 identical questions regarding experience of both schools, followed by in-depth interview highlighting the difference between the subject's experiences of both schools. Using hermeneutic data evaluation, Findings fell into 4 strong themes at 2 poles of experience and practice: Liberatory and Oppressive. </p><p> There was 1 significant exception to the clear pattern in Findings: a teacher within the Oppressive system used Liberatory practices effectively. Simple changes like respect, care, listening, and personal connection could increase learning and happiness in school.</p>

The problem upon which this study is based, is to determine the importance of bibliotherapy to children who are exposed to daily violence in society. Exposure to daily violence have detrimental consequences for these children which result in that it is a traumatic experience for them, that could affect personality development and interpersonal relations. This reseach is done within the context of a school situated in a violence society which provide the ideal oppurtunity to reach such children. The school provides an atmosphere which is conducive to reading and verbalisation.