<p> This study explored the contributing factors to defending behaviors which are characterized as the actions of those who stand up for peers who are victims of peer aggression. These factors were cognitive empathy, affective empathy, appreciation of differences, peer group status, gender and age. The factors were examined in the context of a path model among adolescents aged 12 to 14. The results of this study supported the proposed model and it was determined to be a good fit to the data. Five out of seven hypotheses were supported. Affective empathy was found to mediate the relationship between cognitive empathy and defender status such that greater affective empathy indicated greater defender status. Cognitive empathy alone was not found to predict defender status. Peer group status mediated the relationship between affective empathy and defending behaviors such that higher peer group status indicated greater likelihood of defender status. Appreciation of differences did not mediate the relationship between affective empathy nor predict defender status alone. Age was significant in moderating the relationship between appreciation of differences and defender status such that it was a greater predictor for younger students than older ones. Gender did not moderate the relationship between peer group status and defending behaviors. Post hoc analyses indicated that the model was a better fit for males than females. Conclusions inform best practices for interventions to promote defending behaviors and the development of factors that contribute to defending behaviors.</p>

<p> America needs a healthy workforce to sustain the country. The scourge of obesity continues to plague Americans despite government initiatives such as the Affordable Care Act and wellness programs in the workplace to combat this epidemic. However, despite initiatives to make America healthy, barriers continued to impede the nation&rsquo;s health. Lack of awareness and sensitivity to what motivates individual participants versus group participants built formidable barriers to accessing all workplace employees equitably. The purpose of this study was twofold. First, the intent of this study was to explore the relationship between self-efficacy and the impact on participation and engagement when faced with perceived barriers in an eight-week walking challenge. Second, the study sought to explore the relationship between efficacy and the impact on participation and engagement in an eight-week walking challenge between those who participated as a member of a team (collective efficacy) and those who participated individually (self-efficacy). A sequential explanatory mixed-methods research design was used to address the research questions, which entailed a quantitative survey followed by qualitative interviews. The population included 495 benefits-eligible employees representing Brandman University&rsquo;s full-time faculty and staff from over 25 campuses throughout California, Washington, and Oregon.</p>

A questionnaire-made up of a portion of the Shepard-Crawford Social Referent Scale, the Willoughby Schedule, and a student information form – was developed to ascertain whether or not the level of alienation differed in students seeking associate degrees from those students seeking baccalaureate degrees in the College of Business and Public Affairs at Western Kentucky University. The instrument was administered to 453 students enrolled in classes required to complete an association degree program in the College of Business and Public Affairs at Western Kentucky University. The statistical results for this study were computed by resources available at Western Kentucky University through Academic Computing and Research Services and the use of the Kentucky Educational Computer Network. The program package accessed was the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) using the t-test and frequency procedure. The variables utilized to investigate the relationships that exist between the feelings of alienation by associate degree students and the associate-baccalaureate student mix in the classroom were: the first year associate degree student and the second year associate degree student; the first year associate degree student and the first year baccalaureate degree student; the second year associate degree student and the second year baccalaureate degree student. The study developed no significant differences in feelings of alienation in associate degree students although mean scores did indicate a slight trend toward a higher level of alienation developing in associate degree students.

<p> Educational psychology is concerned with increasing the efficacy of teaching and learning while questioning why students from under-represented groups persistently under-perform their peers academically. Students most at risk for poor academic outcomes and most at risk for dropping out of school are American-born students of Mexican origin. Native or second generation-plus Hispanics have the highest high school dropout rate of any U.S. born racial or ethnic group. The purpose of this study was to answer the research question, &ldquo;How do native Hispanic male long-term English language learners describe the experience of schooling within the educational context of one public school system?&rdquo; Examined were long-term English language learners&rsquo; salient psychological experiences of schooling within the independent and interconnecting contexts of one public school system. The four elements of setting based on Bronfenbrenner&rsquo;s ecological structure of the educational environment were examined; roles and relationships, activities, place, and time. In addition, the valence of each participant&rsquo;s experiences was examined. Three educational contexts were defined in this study: the English language development classroom (micro-system); the mainstream classroom (micro-system); and the school campus (meso-system). The body of empirical research relating to Hispanic students, English language learners, and long-term English language learners addresses the poor academic achievement of these students by focusing on isolated factors and is replete with quantitative studies. This study adds to the body of research through the application of generic qualitative inquiry methods. During the course of a single one-on-one in-depth interview with the researcher, participants revealed a world of reflections, thoughts, feelings, and beliefs about the outward experience of schooling from their perspective as a long-term English language learner. A self-selecting sample of eight participants originated from a population of native U.S. born, second-generation, male, long-term English language learners within the research site. Participants ranged in age from 18-22 years and had been enrolled in the English language development program between 6.5 and 12 years. Data were analyzed through the application of theoretical thematic analysis within- and across-educational contexts. Findings were presented as five overarching themes representative of the school experience of participants: denunciation of the identity/label of English language learner; the ascendancy of relationships; racial/ethnic and linguistic social stratification; ELD as the 21st century &ldquo;Mexican&rdquo; school, and school characteristics. Through the analysis and discussion of participants&rsquo; experiences in school, there appears to be an opportunity for psychological and educational practitioners to apply these research findings to improve the educational experiences of Hispanic long-term English language learners as well as all English language learners at all proficiency levels within the public school system.</p>

<p> Building on Dr. Tschannen-Moran &amp; Dr. Gareis&rsquo; research into principal self-efficacy, as well as Dr. Dweck&rsquo;s work regarding growth mindset, this study explores the relationship between principals&rsquo; performance on the Pennsylvania Framework for Leadership evaluation tool and their corresponding self-reported degree of self-efficacy and growth mindset. Principals in one Pennsylvania County were included in the sample and asked to complete an electronic survey comprised of: (a) demographic questions, (b) performance evaluation data, (c) mindset scales, and (d) principal self-efficacy scales. The data analysis consisted of both a linear regression of principal performance on principals&rsquo; mindset, moral leadership self-efficacy, and instructional self-efficacy scores. Additionally, correlation matrices were employed to identify the presence and direction of relationships between self-efficacy levels and the degree of growth mindset reported by principals. </p><p> Results demonstrated a positive association between principals&rsquo; instructional self-efficacy reports and their overall performance evaluation. Alternatively, both growth mindset and moral leadership self-efficacy evidenced a negative association. There was no association reflected between growth mindset and either the overall self-efficacy measure, nor the sub-scale self-efficacy measures. A secondary relationship revealed a negative association between school performance profile (SPP) and growth mindset. This relationship held true in subsequent regression analyses.</p>

A distinction between learning and performance has long been traditional in theoretical and experimental formulations of general learning theory. More recently a similar or parallel distinction has developed in the literature on children with academic difficulties. Here it has been referred to as a distinction between "assimilation and utilization" or between "disorders in the function of taking in knowledge" and "disorders in the use of learning." Other recent investigations have further hypothesized that a set of broad motivational variables characterized as "fear of success" or "need to fail" are crucial in the poor achievement of some children with academic difficulties. This study was designed as an experimental investigation of some consequences that seemed deducible from the inter-relationships among these distinctions and hypotheses. Three groups of children were defined within a normal school population by a statistical comparison of academic grades and achievement test scores in reading. All subjects had at least average I.Q. scores. In the first group, academic grades were significantly lower than might have been predicted from the achievement test scores. This was considered to reflect a difficulty in performance and the group was referred to as the non-performers. In the second group, academic grades and achievement test scores were both considerably below the average for the whole group. This was considered to reflect a difficulty in learning, and the group was referred to as the non-learners. In the third group, academic grades and achievement test scores were congruent and both were at an average level. This group was referred to as the normals. Subjects were examined individually under one of three conditions of evaluative feedback: (1) competitive success, (2) competitive failure, and (3) neutral. In the competitive success condition, the subject was convinced that he was performing more adequately than his peers. In the competitive failure condition, he was convinced that he was performing more poorly. In the neutral condition, the feedback was purely procedural. A modified version of the Digit-Symbol Test was the principal task. During the performance trials emphasis was on speed, and time in seconds was taken as a performance measure. After 10 trials, each subject was asked to complete the Digit-Symbol form without a key. The number of digit-symbol combinations remembered correctly was taken as a measure of learning. Thematic Apperception Test stories and Sarason Anxiety Scale scores were obtained from each subject. The major hypotheses may be stated informally. The non-performer group should show greater decrement in performance than in learning, and the largest performance decrement should occur under the competitive success condition. The non-learner group should show decrements in both performance and learning when compared to the other two groups. They should show no special decrement under success. The normal group should show best performance and learning under the success condition with only slight decrements under the other two conditions. There should be no difference between the non-performer and the normal group on the learning measure. None of these major hypotheses were unequivocally substantiated. There was, however, evidence to warrant several conclusions. The groups defined statistically were discriminable on some experimental tasks. This lends credence to the notion of two types of learning problems. The crucial role of competitive success in influencing the behavior of the non-performer group was demonstrated. However, such broad motivational patterns as “need to fail” or “renunciation of success” are not sufficiently explanatory. There was, in fact, evidence that consideration must also be given to the non-performers unduly intense "need to succeed". The experimental conditions were effectively created in that there were differences among conditions across all groups on the learning measure. Also, each group showed a pattern of differential response to each of the conditions. / This thesis was digitized as part of a project begun in 2014 to increase the number of Duke psychology theses available online. The digitization project was spearheaded by Ciara Healy.

<p> A Multi-Tier System of Support (MTSS) for academic skills is widely recognized as the best practice framework for supporting all students. Additionally, the recent shift from constructivist pedagogy toward more intentional teaching of mathematics at the preschool level has encouraged more explicit mathematics instruction with younger children. In spite of these advances, there are no published best practice guidelines for implementing MTSS for mathematics at the prekindergarten level. The current study sought to investigate one possible way to implement effective instructional practices for preschool mathematics within a multi-tier system, including the use of validated screening and progress monitoring instruments. A centers-based mathematics curriculum was implemented at the universal level within an inclusive preschool classroom. Universal screening was conducted using curriculum-based measurement (CBM) in order to identify at-risk students in need of additional instruction. A supplemental prekindergarten program was implemented with small instructional groups at the secondary tier of support. Students receiving supplemental instruction were progress-monitored using growth-sensitive CBMs in a multiple baseline across dyads research design. Results and limitations of the study are discussed. Finally, topics for future exploration in preschool mathematics are suggested. </p>

<p> This dissertation aims to address a gap in the literature regarding the effect of the achievement-focused student identity on prosocial values and behaviors, specifically among students who predominantly value prosociality. Largely, research on identity and motivation addresses academic outcomes and psychological well-being outcomes (Settles, Sellers, &amp; Damas, 2002; Jaret &amp; Reitzes, 2009) while more recent literature that has addressed prosocial motives (Yeager, et al., 2015) has solely assessed academic performance outcomes. Drawing upon values literature (Schwartz, 1992) it can be inferred that the achievement-focused student identity may inhibit or decrease prosocial values and behaviors. Further, this may be particularly deleterious for the psychological well-being of students who hold prosociality as a central guiding feature of their self-concept. First, I examine whether certain social identities tend to have a higher tendency towards prosociality (Study 1). Second, I assess how a salient achievement-focused identity affects student behaviors (with particular attention to more prosocially inclined students) during a stressful academic situation (Study 2a &amp; 2b). Next, I devise a novel measure to assess the centrality of prosociality to the self and perceptions of conflict between prosocial values and achievement-focused settings (Study 3). Then, I assess how a salient achievement-focused identity impacts prosocial values and behaviors, and offer a new "integrated" approach to the student identity. Last, I assess how this expanded and "integrated" identity influences students' academic perceptions and psychological well-being, specifically for those students who are more prosocially inclined (e.g., women and lower income) as well as for those who perceive higher levels of prosocial-achievement conflict (Study 4).</p>

<p> <b>Objective:</b> Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI) is the leading recommended treatment for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Children with ASD are at a substantially higher risk for developing symptoms associated with additional psychopathology compared to typically developing children. Currently, little is known about the utility of EIBI on symptoms of additional psychopathology. This study aimed to assess if EIBI would serve as a preventative treatment for the development of symptoms associated with additional psychopathology in a sample of young children with ASD. <b> Method:</b> This study was part of a larger multicenter, 2-year, two-arm randomized clinical trial (RCT) evaluating the effectiveness of Project DATA [Developmentally Appropriate Treatment for Autism] Toddler Model, an inclusive based EIBI for young child with ASD, as compared to Services as Usual (SAU). Fifty-one children between the ages of 20 and 35 months with an Autism Spectrum Disorder were assessed at pretreatment and approximately a year into service. Children&rsquo;s intellectual ability, level of ASD symptoms, and emotional and behavioral symptoms were assessed at both assessment points. <b>Results: </b> Groups were equivalent on all dependent variables at pretreatment. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) did not reveal an overall treatment effect when groups were compared simultaneously across level of ASD symptoms, intellectual functioning, and emotional and behavior symptoms. Univariate analyses demonstrated that EIBI resulted in significantly higher child intellectual functioning compared to SAU at post. No significant differences for level of ASD symptoms or emotional or behavioral symptoms indicative of additional psychopathology were revealed between groups at post. <b> Conclusion:</b> EIBI appears to influence child intellectual functioning, but may not have an effect on other important areas of child well-being. The utility of EIBI for children with ASD and additional psychopathology is discussed. More research is needed to identify the impact EIBI has on children with ASD. Particular focus should be given to symptoms of additional psychopathology and emerging treatments for children with ASD.</p>

Challenging behaviour in schools is a phenomenon focused on by a number of educational documents (Ofsted, 2010) and the media (Vasager, 2011). Challenging behaviour has been shown to have negative impact on a number of student and staff outcomes (DfE, 2012a). Staff outcomes impacted by challenging behaviour include increasing burnout (Crone, Hawken & Bergstrom, 2007) and decreasing self-efficacy (Mitchell & Hastings, 2001), which have been connected to negative impact on staff health (Hastings & Bham, 2003). Time allocated to staff training in schools is decreasing (Bubb & Earley, 2013), highlighting a need for research which considers how school staff can be supported in the limited time available. The impact of a behaviour plan based on solution focused and behavioural principles (developed by a specialist teacher) on students’ challenging behaviour was explored through single case experimental design. Further to this a randomised control design investigated the impact of whole school training relating to the behaviour plan on school staff burnout and self-efficacy. Results showed that the intervention reduced challenging behaviours to differing degrees of all 3 primary students included in the single case experimental design. The whole school training did not significantly impact the number of behaviour plans implemented in classrooms. However, training was shown to have significant positive effects on school staffs’ personal, general, and overall self-efficacy, with no impact on external self-efficacy. The training was also shown to significantly decrease school staffs’ burnout levels; specifically physical fatigue, cognitive weariness, and overall burnout levels, but not emotional exhaustion. This research suggests that the behaviour plan and the accompanying whole school training have the potential to increase teacher self-efficacy, decrease teacher burnout, and provide staff with a suitable intervention to manage challenging behaviour. Areas for further research are highlighted by the limitations and additional observations made during the research process.