abstract: Over the last decade copper electrodeposition has become the dominant process by which microelectronic interconnects are made. Replacing ultra-high vacuum evaporative film growth, the technology known as the Cu damascene process has been widely implemented in the microelectronics industry since the early 2000s. The transition from vacuum film growth to electrodeposition was enabled by solution chemistries that provide "bottom-up" or superfilling capability of vias and trenches. While the process has been and is used widely, the actual mechanisms responsible for superfilling remain relatively unknown. This dissertation presents and discusses the background and results of experimental investigations that have been done using in situ electrochemical surface stress monitoring techniques to study the evolution of stress on Cu{111} thin film electrodes. Because of its extreme sensitivity to the structure on both the electrode and solution sides of the interface, surface stress monitoring as analytical technique is well suited for the study of electrodeposition. These ultra-high resolution stress measurements reveal the dynamic response of copper electrodes to a number of electrochemical and chemical experimental variables. In the case of constant current pulsed deposition and stripping, the surface stress evolution depends not only on the magnitude of the current pulse, but also shows a marked response to plating bath composition. The plating bath chemistries used in this work include (1) additive free, (2) deposition suppressing solutions that include polyethylene glycol (PEG) and sodium chloride (NaCl) as well as (3) full additive solution combinations which contain PEG, NaCl, and a one of two deposition accelerating species (bis-(sodiumsulfopropyl)disulfide (SPS) or mercaptopropane sulfonic acid (MPS)). The development of thin film stress is further investigated through a series of solution exchange experiments that correlate the magnitude of electrode exchange current density and the stress state of the film. Remarkably, stress changes as large as ~8.5 N/m are observed during solution exchanges at the open circuit potential. Overall, this research demonstrates that solution chemistry can have a large impact on thin film stress evolution, even for very small deposition thicknesses (e.g. <10 ML) or in the absence of net addition or removal of material from the electrode. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Materials Science and Engineering 2011

Les oxydes simple ou double de métaux de transition (OMTs) sont des matériaux prometteurs pour les applications en tant qu’électrode dans des pseudo supercondensateurs ou des supercondensateur redox car ils peuvent présenter un gain de densité d’énergie résultant des réactions redox.Ce mémoire de thèse a pour but l’étude et l’optimisation du comportement électrochimique d’électrodes d’ oxydes simple de manganèse ainsi que le développement de nouvelles électrodes à base d’oxydes doubles (OMTs) conçues pour le stockage d’énergie dans les supercondensateurs redox , grâce au dépôt de ces matériaux actifs sur un collecteur de courant en acier inoxydable par électrodéposition ce qui représente une technique flexible et peu couteuse.Afin d’étudier ces électrodes, leurs propriétés physico-chemique ont été caractérisées par microscopie électronique (SEM/TEM), spectroscopie X à dispersion d’énergie (EDX), par diffraction X (XRD), par spectroscopies Raman & Infrarrougee (FTIR), par microsopie à force atomique (AFM) et par magnétométrie SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device). Leurs propriétés electrochimique ont été caractérisées par voltamperométrie cyclique et chronopotentiométrie.Les résultats détaillent la croissance et les caractérisations physico-chimique et électrochimique de plusieurs oxydes TMOS (TM=Mn, Mn-Co, Ni-Mn) ainsi que d’hydroxydes de Ni-Co préparés par électrodéposition. Le contrôle de la morphologie et de l’architecture des électrodes, en vue de créer des surfaces ayant des grandes surfaces actives, est le paramètre clé pour augmenter la performance du pseudo-condensateur. Dans le détail, le travail de recherche a contribué au développement de nouveau matériaux pour des électrodes à base d’oxyde (et hydroxydes) pour les supercondensateurs redox par: (i) la mise en œuvre de nouvelles électrodes avec des bonnes performances pseudocapacitive pour des supercondesateurs (Mn oxydes, Ni-Mn oxydes, Ni-Co hydroxydes), (ii) la pleine compréhension de l’effet du recuit sur la transformation de l’hydroxyde préparés par électrodéposition en oxyde et de la corrélation résultante avec les propriétés électrochimiques pour des électrodes à base d’oxyde Mn-Co, (iii) la description détaillée du mécanisme de croissance de films d’ oxyde de Mn préparés par électrodéposition à partir d’électrolytes à base de nitrates, (iv) la mise en évidence d’une méthode prometteuse de mise en forme et contrôle de la morphologie de surface d’oxydes mixtes préparés par électrodéposition et ce à travers le contrôle de la croissance d’oxyde simples , (v) la compréhension du mécanisme de nucléation des hydroxydes préparés par électrodéposition (Ni-Co hydroxydes). Les résultats de ce mémoire de thèse vont au delà de l’état de l’art et apportent des faits marquants pour l’avancée du développement de nouveaux matériaux pour électrodes dans des supercondensateurs redox. / Transition metal oxides (TMOs) and double TMOs are promising materials for application as electrodes in pseudo supercapacitors or redox supercapacitors because they can exhibit increased energy density resulted from redox reactions.This PhD dissertation aims at studying and improving the electrochemical behavior of single TMOs - manganese oxides and at developing new double TMOs electrodes tailored for energy storage in redox supercapacitors, by depositing the active materials directly on stainless steel current collector via a flexible and costless electrodeposition route.To study these electrodes for supercapacitors, their physic-chemical properties were characterized by scanning/transmission electron microscopy (SEM/TEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman & Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), atomic force microscopy (AFM) and superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID). Their electrochemical properties were characterized by cyclic voltammetry and chronopotentiometry.The results have detailed the growing, physic-chemical and electrochemical characterizations of Mn oxides, Mn-Co oxides, Ni-Mn oxides and Ni-Co hydroxides prepared by electrodeposition. Tailoring the morphology and architecture these electrodes and creating surfaces exhibiting high surface area are key parameters for enhanced pseudocapacitive performance. In detail, the research work contributed to the development of novel oxide (and hydroxides) materials for redox supercapacitors by: (i) providing novel electrodes with good pseudocapacitive performance for supercapacitors (Mn oxides, Ni-Mn oxides, Ni-Co hydroxides), (ii) fully understanding the effect of annealing on the transformation from electrodeposited mixed hydroxides to mixed oxide and their correlation with electrochemical properties for the Mn-Co oxide – based electrodes, (iii) detailing the growing mechanisms of Mn oxide films electrodeposited from nitrate based electrolyte, (iv) revealing a promising way of tailoring surface morphology of electrodeposited mixed oxides by controlling the growth of single oxides, (v) understanding the nucleation mechanism of hydroxides prepared by electrodeposition (Ni-Co hydroxides).Thus, the results of this PhD dissertation go beyond the state-of-the-art and provided valuable highlights to advance the development of novel electrode materials for redox supercapacitors.

abstract: The electrode-electrolyte interface in electrochemical environments involves the understanding of complex processes relevant for all electrochemical applications. Some of these processes include electronic structure, charge storage, charge transfer, solvent dynamics and structure and surface adsorption. In order to engineer electrochemical systems, no matter the function, requires fundamental intuition of all the processes at the interface. The following work presents different systems in which the electrode-electrolyte interface is highly important. The first is a charge storage electrode utilizing percolation theory to develop an electrode architecture producing high capacities. This is followed by Zn deposition in an ionic liquid in which the deposition morphology is highly dependant on the charge transfer and surface adsorption at the interface. Electrode Architecture: A three-dimensional manganese oxide supercapacitor electrode architecture is synthesized by leveraging percolation theory to develop a hierarchically designed tri-continuous percolated network. The three percolated phases include a faradaically-active material, electrically conductive material and pore-former templated void space. The micropores create pathways for ionic conductivity, while the nanoscale electrically conducting phase provides both bulk conductivity and local electron transfer with the electrochemically active phase. Zn Electrodeposition: Zn redox in air and water stable N-ethyl-N-methylmorpholinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, [C2nmm][NTf2] is presented. Under various conditions, characterization of overpotential, kinetics and diffusion of Zn species and morphological evolution as a function of overpotential and Zn concentration are analyzed. The surface stress evolution during Zn deposition is examined where grain size and texturing play significant rolls in compressive stress generation. Morphological repeatability in the ILs led to a novel study of purity in ionic liquids where it is found that surface adsorption of residual amine and chloride from the organic synthesis affect growth characteristics. The drivers of this work are to understand the processes occurring at the electrode-electrolyte interface and with that knowledge, engineer systems yielding optimal performance. With this in mind, the design of a bulk supercapacitor electrode architecture with excellent composite specific capacitances, as well as develop conditions producing ideal Zn deposition morphologies was completed. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Materials Science and Engineering 2011

Revestimentos de zinco são utilizados, há muito tempo, como revestimentos protetores e decorativos para peças metálicas. A escolha do zinco se deve ao baixo custo do mesmo. No entanto, aplicações industriais têm exigido revestimentos à base de zinco com melhor desempenho com relação à resistência à corrosão e à resistência ao desgaste. Nesse sentido, ligas de zinco, bem como, revestimentos compósitos de zinco têm sido desenvolvidos, visando, por exemplo, a substituição de revestimentos de cádmio na indústria aeronáutica. Os revestimentos compósitos de zinco podem ser geralmente obtidos em banhos de zinco contendo partículas de argilo-minerais. Com base nisso, neste trabalho foi estudado o efeito da incorporação de partículas cerâmicas à matriz metálica de zinco. Partículas de talco e de bentonita foram utilizadas considerando o baixo custo e o caráter lubrificante das mesmas. Os revestimentos obtidos foram caracterizados por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica, ensaios de polarização potenciostática, ensaios acelerados de corrosão, ensaio de desgaste do tipo pino-disco, interferometria ótica e microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Os resultados mostraram que o comportamento eletroquímico do revestimento de zinco não é prejudicado pela incorporação de partículas. Além disso, a presença de partículas promove a redução da rugosidade do revestimento e atribui um caráter lubrificante ao revestimento ainda que reduções importantes do coeficiente de atrito não sejam observadas. / Zinc coatings have been used for long time as a protection coatings and decorative to metals parts. Zinc was chosen due to a low cost. However, industry applications have been requiring Zinc coatings, which have a better efficience at corrosion resistance and wear resistance. Zinc alloys and composites coatings of Zinc have been developed to replace cadmium coatings in aircraft industry, for example. Zinc composite coatings can be obtained in electrolytes that contain zinc plus ceramic particles. Because of that, the present work aim studying the ceramic particles, talc or bentonite, on their incorporation into metal matrix. Talc and bentonite particles were used due to their low cost and lubricant feature. The coatings obtained were evaluated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, potentiostatic polarization, salt spray, pin and disc wear, optical interferometry and scanning electron microscopy. The results showed that the features of the electrochemical zinc coating are not affected by the particles presence. Moreover, the particles presence promote the coating roughness decrease and gives to the coating a lubricant character although a decrease the friction coefficient had not been observed.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Chemistry) / Nanomaterials have been found to undeniably possess superior properties than bulk structures across many fields of study including natural science, medicine, materials science, electronics etc. The study of nano-sized structures has the ability to address the current world crisis in energy demand and climate change. The development of materials that have various applications will allow for quick and cost effective solutions. Nanomaterials of Sn and Bi are the core of the electronic industry for their use in micro packaging components. These nanomaterials are also used as electrocatalysts in fuel cells and carbon dioxide conversion, and as electrodes for rechargeable sodium ion batteries. There are various methods used to make these nanostructures including solid state methods, hydrothermal methods, sputtering, and vacuum deposition techniques. These methods lack the ability to control the structure of material at an atomic level to fine tune the properties of the final product. This study aims to use E-ALD technique to synthesis thin films of Sn and Bi for various energy applications, and reports the use of E-ALD in battery applications for the first time. Thin films were synthesised by developing a deposition sequence and optimising this deposition sequence by varying deposition parameters. These parameters include deposition potential, and concentration of precursor solution. The thin films were characterised using cyclic voltammetry, linear sweep voltammetry, chronoamperometry for electrochemical activity. These were also characterised using scanning electron microscope for morphology, x-ray diffraction for crystal phases, energy dispersive spectroscopy for elemental mapping, and focused ion beam scanning electron microscope for thickness. The elemental content was analysed using electron probe micro analysis and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The electrochemical impedance charge and discharge profile were used for electrochemical battery tests.

Revestimentos de zinco são utilizados, há muito tempo, como revestimentos protetores e decorativos para peças metálicas. A escolha do zinco se deve ao baixo custo do mesmo. No entanto, aplicações industriais têm exigido revestimentos à base de zinco com melhor desempenho com relação à resistência à corrosão e à resistência ao desgaste. Nesse sentido, ligas de zinco, bem como, revestimentos compósitos de zinco têm sido desenvolvidos, visando, por exemplo, a substituição de revestimentos de cádmio na indústria aeronáutica. Os revestimentos compósitos de zinco podem ser geralmente obtidos em banhos de zinco contendo partículas de argilo-minerais. Com base nisso, neste trabalho foi estudado o efeito da incorporação de partículas cerâmicas à matriz metálica de zinco. Partículas de talco e de bentonita foram utilizadas considerando o baixo custo e o caráter lubrificante das mesmas. Os revestimentos obtidos foram caracterizados por espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica, ensaios de polarização potenciostática, ensaios acelerados de corrosão, ensaio de desgaste do tipo pino-disco, interferometria ótica e microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Os resultados mostraram que o comportamento eletroquímico do revestimento de zinco não é prejudicado pela incorporação de partículas. Além disso, a presença de partículas promove a redução da rugosidade do revestimento e atribui um caráter lubrificante ao revestimento ainda que reduções importantes do coeficiente de atrito não sejam observadas. / Zinc coatings have been used for long time as a protection coatings and decorative to metals parts. Zinc was chosen due to a low cost. However, industry applications have been requiring Zinc coatings, which have a better efficience at corrosion resistance and wear resistance. Zinc alloys and composites coatings of Zinc have been developed to replace cadmium coatings in aircraft industry, for example. Zinc composite coatings can be obtained in electrolytes that contain zinc plus ceramic particles. Because of that, the present work aim studying the ceramic particles, talc or bentonite, on their incorporation into metal matrix. Talc and bentonite particles were used due to their low cost and lubricant feature. The coatings obtained were evaluated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, potentiostatic polarization, salt spray, pin and disc wear, optical interferometry and scanning electron microscopy. The results showed that the features of the electrochemical zinc coating are not affected by the particles presence. Moreover, the particles presence promote the coating roughness decrease and gives to the coating a lubricant character although a decrease the friction coefficient had not been observed.

abstract: This work demonstrates a capable reverse pulse deposition methodology to influence gap fill behavior inside microvia along with a uniform deposit in the fine line patterned regions for substrate packaging applications. Interconnect circuitry in IC substrate packages comprises of stacked microvia that varies in depth from 20µm to 100µm with an aspect ratio of 0.5 to 1.5 and fine line patterns defined by photolithography. Photolithography defined pattern regions incorporate a wide variety of feature sizes including large circular pad structures with diameter of 20µm - 200µm, fine traces with varying widths of 3µm - 30µm and additional planar regions to define a IC substrate package. Electrodeposition of copper is performed to establish the desired circuit. Electrodeposition of copper in IC substrate applications holds certain unique challenges in that they require a low cost manufacturing process that enables a void-free gap fill inside the microvia along with uniform deposition of copper on exposed patterned regions. Deposition time scales to establish the desired metal thickness for such packages could range from several minutes to few hours. This work showcases a reverse pulse electrodeposition methodology that achieves void-free gap fill inside the microvia and uniform plating in FLS (Fine Lines and Spaces) regions with significantly higher deposition rates than traditional approaches. In order to achieve this capability, systematic experimental and simulation studies were performed. A strong correlation of independent parameters that govern the electrodeposition process such as bath temperature, reverse pulse plating parameters and the ratio of electrolyte concentrations is shown to the deposition kinetics and deposition uniformity in fine patterned regions and gap fill rate inside the microvia. Additionally, insight into the physics of via fill process is presented with secondary and tertiary current simulation efforts. Such efforts lead to show “smart” control of deposition rate at the top and bottom of via to avoid void formation. Finally, a parametric effect on grain size and the ensuing copper metallurgical characteristics of bulk copper is also shown to enable high reliability substrate packages for the IC packaging industry. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Materials Science and Engineering 2018

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Submitted by Kilvya Braga (kilvyabraga@hotmail.com) on 2018-04-19T11:38:41Z No. of bitstreams: 1 MIKARLA BAÍA DE SOUSA - DISSERTAÇÃO (PPGEQ) 2015.pdf: 2853939 bytes, checksum: 73cb4a3ae1a6f5afdefa786c3032de07 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-04-19T11:38:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MIKARLA BAÍA DE SOUSA - DISSERTAÇÃO (PPGEQ) 2015.pdf: 2853939 bytes, checksum: 73cb4a3ae1a6f5afdefa786c3032de07 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-09-29 / CNPq / O processo de corrosão está constantemente transformando os materiais metálicos de modo que a durabilidade e o desempenho dos mesmos deixam de satisfazer os fins a que se destinam. Uma forma de se minimizar a corrosão em materiais metálicos é revesti-los com outros materiais. A eletrodeposição é um método muito utilizado na obtenção de revestimentos metálicos resistentes à corrosão e ao desgaste mecânico. Através da eletrodeposição é possível obter ligas metálicas, as quais são geralmente preparadas com o intuito de melhorar as propriedades dos seus constituintes iniciais. O estudo proposto tem como objetivo otimizar as variáveis de entrada (densidade de corrente e pH) e obter a liga CuZn-Ni resistente à corrosão, caracterizando-a quanto à morfologia, eficiência de corrente catódica, composição da liga, microdureza e resistência à corrosão. Para a otimização do processo de eletrodeposição da liga foi realizado um planejamento fatorial completo 32. Avaliou-se quantitativamente a influência das variáveis de entrada bem como suas possíveis interações com a realização mínima de experimentos. Estudou-se o processo de eletrodeposição de liga Cu-Zn-Ni sobre um cátodo, utilizando um banho contendo sulfato de cobre, sulfato de zinco, sulfato de níquel e citrato de sódio. Todos os experimentos foram realizados em temperatura ambiente e em triplicata, os valores ótimos encontrados através da polarização potenciodinâmica linear foram: densidade de corrente catódica de 30 mA/cm2 e pH 6,0; com esses parâmetros foi possível alcançar um potencial de corrosão de -0,31949 V, uma resistência à polarização de 948090 Ω e uma corrente de corrosão de 6,4265 nA. Os ensaios de impedância eletroquímica confirmaram os resultados obtidos pelos ensaios de polarização potenciodinâmica linear. A composição média deste depósito foi 56 w.t.% de Cu, 38 w.t.% de Zn e 6 w.t. % de Ni. As ligas encontradas apresentaram brilho, aderência e boa resistência à polarização e através da difração de raios-x concluiu-se que a liga obtida é cristalina. O estudo da morfologia acusou a presença de nódulos esféricos de vários tamanhos na superfície da liga. A composição química dos revestimentos parece ser o fator mais importante para a microdureza dos revestimentos, já que o experimento com maior conteúdo de zinco apresentou o valor mais elevado de microdureza, que foi de 571 HV. Estas ligas podem ter grande utilidade em várias aplicações nas indústrias químicas, petrolíferas, petroquímicas, navais, de construções civis e automobilísticas em decorrência de algumas características especiais, como alta resistência à corrosão e ao desgaste e ao baixo sobrepotencial de evolução do hidrogênio da liga Cu-Zn-Ni. / The corrosion process is constantly transforming metallic materials, so that their durability and behavior no longer satisfy their goals. One way to minimize corrosion in metallic materials is to coat them with other materials. Electrodeposition is a widely used method in obtaining metallic coatings resistant to corrosion and mechanic wear. Through electrodeposition, it is possible to obtain alloys, which are generally prepared in order to improve the characteristics of their initial constituents. The proposed study has, as a goal, to optimize the input variables (current density and pH), and obtain the Cu-Zn-Ni alloy resistant to corrosion. A 32 experimental design was used to optimize the electrodeposition process. Both the input variable influence, and their possible interactions, performing less experiments as possible, were quantitatively evaluated. The electrodeposition process of the Cu-Zn-Ni on a cathode was studied, using a bath containing copper sulfate, zinc sulfate, nickel sulfate and sodium citrate. All experiments were conducted at room temperature and in triplicate. The best reached values, through linear potentiodynamic polarization, were: cathode current density of 30 mA/cm2 and pH 6.0; with those parameters, it was possible to reach a potential of -0.31949 V, a 948090 Ω polarization resistance, and a 6.4265 nA current density. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy confirms the linear potentiodynamic polarization results. Its chemical composition, in average, was 56 w.t. % of Cu, 38 w.t.% of Zn, and 6 w.t.% of Ni. Those found alloys showed bright, adherence and good resistance to polarization, and, through X-ray diffraction, it is concluded that the alloy is crystalline. The morphology study pointed out the presence of spherical nodules with different sizes on the alloy surface. The chemical composition of the coatings seems to be the most important factor for the coatings microhardness, since the experiment with the highest zinc content showed the highest microhardness value, which was 571 HV. Those alloys may have great utility in many applications in chemical, oil, petrochemical, naval industries, civil construction and automobile industries, because of some special characteristics, such as high resistance to corrosion and wear, and low overpotential for hydrogen evolution reaction of the Cu-Zn-Ni alloy.