Gender differences in emotion regulation (ER) are well documented, but studies have often relied on behavioral and self-report data. Less is known about gender differences in the neural basis of ER. This systematic review aims to fill this gap and investigate gender differences in the neural basis of ER. The systematic search process ended in eight articles, using either structural or functional neuroimaging methods while investigating the neural correlates of ER using either an ER task to manipulate ER or assessed trait ER with questionnaires. The studies either used reappraisal or expressive suppression as ER strategies. The results were partly inconsistent, but most studies demonstrate the involvement of areas within the prefrontal cortex in ER. Males activated areas involved in cognitive control while females activated emotion-focused areas involved in emotional processing. There is disagreements among researchers whether more activity in the prefrontal cortex represent more effort during ER (and how it does so), as well as whetherless activity represent less effort or more efficient regulation. These insights may help us understand each other better. Future research is needed to address if activation within the prefrontal cortex reflects more or less efficiency when regulating emotions.

Control beliefs are widely acknowledged to play a critical role in self-regulation and well-being, but their impact on decisions to approach or avoid emotionally valenced stimuli is not clear. Two contradictory predictions for this impact can be derived from extant theorizing on the functions of control beliefs. On the one hand, control beliefs may provide individuals with the incentive to proactively regulate their emotions and avoid negative situations. On the other hand, control beliefs might help individuals to confidently approach negative situations. The current study examined whether goal orientations help to determine the conditions under which control beliefs promote negativity engagement versus negativity avoidance. Specifically, I experimentally manipulated emotional control beliefs (high versus low) and motivation (emotional goal versus no goal), asked participants to interact with a website containing a variety of stimuli varying in emotional valence, and recorded participants’ choice behavior. I predicted that stronger control beliefs would promote negativity engagement under typical motivational conditions, but would promote negativity avoidance when emotional goals were activated. Results supported these predictions, suggesting that the effect of control beliefs on the decision to approach or avoid negative stimuli depends on the goal activated at the time. Implications for research on control beliefs, emotion regulation, and motivational theories are discussed.

Emotion socialization influences adolescent emotional adjustment. Friendships provide a venue for emotion socialization, yet little research has compared emotion socialization processes with parents versus friends and how they correspond to adolescent outcomes. The present study examined parent and friend socialization of negative emotions in relation to adolescents' emotional coherence, emotion regulation, and internalizing symptoms. Thirty parent-adolescent-friend triads (13–18 years old; 60% female, 40% male) from the community participated. Study variables were measured with a multi-method approach, including observational data, heart rate variability, and self-report. Parents and friends evidenced disparate patterns of socialization responses and unique ties to adolescent outcomes, which has important clinical applications. Friends, as well as parents, are important and distinct socialization agents within the developmental context of adolescence.

Researchers have categorized emotion regulation strategies generally as adaptive or maladaptive, depending on impacts of the strategy on psychophysiological, cognitive, and emotional outcomes. A strategy that is widely considered to be maladaptive is expressive suppression, which refers to inhibiting one’s facial expression, to appear neutral. Another emotion regulation strategy that is commonly used but infrequently studied is expressive dissonance, which refers to showing the opposite of how one feels. There is limited research on expressive dissonance, but the longstanding facial feedback hypothesis suggests that facial expressions can further enhance or lower one’s mood; if this is the case, then smiling, even when feeling anxious, may be more adaptive than showing no emotion at all. The objective of my thesis was to examine whether using expressive dissonance was more adaptive than expressive suppression, for regulating negative emotions. To determine adaptiveness, I examined the effect of these two strategies on both intrapersonal factors (i.e., impacts of the strategy on one’s own psychophysiology, memory accuracy, and affect) and interpersonal factors (i.e., impacts of the strategy on social qualities like friendliness and likeability). In the first study, I tested the intrapersonal impacts of expressive suppression and expressive dissonance, compared to a control condition, while women participants (n = 144) viewed negatively arousing images. In the second study, I expanded on the first study by examining intrapersonal and interpersonal qualities (e.g., friendliness, likeability, warmth), in an ecologically valid context (i.e., a conversation with an unacquainted opposite gender confederate). Across both studies, I found no effect of strategy on intrapersonal factors; however, there were effects on interpersonal factors in Study 2. Participants engaging in expressive dissonance were rated more positively, and people in the expressive suppression condition were rated more negatively on interpersonal qualities, relative to the control condition. Taken together, our findings suggest that neither strategy impacted the participant intrapersonally, but both strategies influenced the observer’s impression of the participant. Based on the findings, I encourage a shift from conceptualizing strategies as overall maladaptive or adaptive, to considering specific strategies as helpful or unhelpful based on the regulation’s goal.

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Recent discussion of proposed changes to the 5th version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders highlighted the struggle to categorize and define the characteristics of persons who present with Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD). BPD has traditionally been defined as a personality disorder, assuming a distinct trajectory and prognosis that sets it apart from other mood disorder diagnoses. However, early discussion in the development of the DSM-V introduced the possibility of BPD as one of several disorders existing on a shared mood disorder or emotion-regulation disorder spectrum. The final, published DSM-V retained BPD as a personality disorder on a diagnostic spectrum apart from mood or emotion regulation disorders; however, does BPD represent a broader and persistent difficulty with emotion regulation, rather than a disorder of the personality? In the current study, 73 psychiatric inpatients in a state-operated forensic hospital and 428 undergraduate students from a local university were administered the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), as well as the BPD section of the Structured Interview for the Diagnosis of Personality Disorders, DSM-IV version (SIDP-IV). Total and subscale scores on the DERS were correlated with individual symptom ratings from the SIDP-IV Borderline. Results suggest many of the subscales representing different facets of emotion regulation evidenced low to moderate correlations with symptoms of BPD. The subscales of the DERS least associated with symptoms and diagnosis of BPD are those that emphasize cognitive regulation of emotional experiences. Thus, it is likely that BPD would fit well within a conceptualization of emotion regulation disorder. Results also suggest some differences between groups, where more overlap between constructs exist for college students rather than psychiatric inpatients, with the least associated constructs are those that emphasize both cognitive and behavioral components of emotional regulation.

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While there has been research published on social withdrawal during childhood, little work has been done on the effects of social withdrawal during emerging adulthood. Since emerging adulthood is a time of transition and initiation to new environments and social contexts, it would be expected to be a time of great anxiety for individuals predisposed to social withdrawal (shyness). Shyer emerging adults are at risk for internalizing behaviors, lowered self-concept, and delayed entry into romantic relationships, therefore, they may also be more challenged when it comes to enacting prosocial behaviors. In addition, the inability to self-regulate emotions may mediate this relationship. This study utilized a sample of 774 college students (538 women, 236 men; 79% Caucasian; M = 20 years old) to test these hypotheses. Results showed that emerging adults who were more socially withdrawn were less likely to exhibit prosocial behaviors toward strangers, friends, and family members. In addition, results showed that the inability to self-regulate emotions, or cope, mediated this relationship in all cases. Implications include the salience of emotional self-regulation as a prerequisite to prosocial behavior directed toward multiple others and the possibly detrimental influence of shyness on relationship and community involvement during emerging adulthood.