Pursuit of unconventional gas and oil has prompted the development and adoption of innovative fracturing solutions. Energized fracturing is one promising technology that can be an effective alternative to mainstream slickwater or hybrid fracturing fluids in many applications. Yet, field use of energized fluids accounted for only 2-3% of 2011-2012 reported fracturing treatments in the U.S. compared to a markedly higher share of 42-46% in Canada. Recently, the superior performance and economics of foams were reported in the Montney Gas Formation in western Canada. In this thesis, we utilized field data and a compositional, 3D fracturing simulator to showcase the production performance of energized fluids in several areas of the Cardium and Bakken Light Oil Formations within the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin. Average well data in the Cardium revealed better production results for foam compared to nitrified slickwater in the West Willesden Green and Buck Lake-Wilson Creek fields. Foams had a 110% higher initial peak production rate and 51% higher long term cumulative production in the West Willesden Green field with a similar initial production profile and a 16.2% higher long-term production in the Buck Lake-Wilson Creek fields. In contrast, the initial peak production rate of nitrified slickwater was 28% higher with 95% incremental oil production relative to foam in the West Pembina field. This shows that the effectiveness of foam fracturing fluids can vary significantly perhaps because of better fracture containment and lower rock water sensitivity in some fields. Across all the areas studied, foam completions on average were found to have 5-20% lower costs and lower water and proppant requirements by 72-87% and 7-38%, respectively. Fracture modeling, on the other hand, showed 53% higher well productivity increase using nitrified slickwater largely because of better contained fractures in the thin Cardium reservoir interval. Nitrified slickwater had twice the propped fracture length and conductivity of foam. With markedly improved fracture containment in depleted Cardium wells, foam is likely to outperform nitrified slickwater as fracturing fluid recovery is enhanced and permeability/relative permeability damage is reduced in water sensitive areas. In the Bakken Formation, field data showed an average of 15.8% higher long term cumulative production for foam compared to crosslinked gel despite the higher initial rate of crosslinked gel. Foam fractures were predicted to have 44% higher well productivity increase than crosslinked gel fractures based on simulations conducted. Foam had 50% longer propped fracture, 73% higher fracture conductivity, and twice the relative permeability to oil in the invaded zone compared to crosslinked gel. In our simulation, some factors were not accounted for such as formation heterogeneity, the effect of solution gas drive and associated water production, and the interaction between induced and natural fractures. Also, our modeling work was based on generic and synthesized data. For more accurate comparisons, we recommend performing simulation runs with detailed well-specific data. / text

Current practices in energized treatments, using gases and foams, remain rudimentary in comparison to other fracturing fluid technologies. None of the available 3D fracturing models for incompressible water-based fluids have been able to capture the thermal and compositional effects that are important when using energized fluids, as their constitutive equations assume single-phase, single-component, incompressible fluid flow. These models introduce a bias in fluid selection because they do not accurately capture the unique behavior of energized fluids. The lack of modeling tools specifically suited for these fluids has hindered their design and field implementation. This work uses a fully compositional 3D fracturing model to answer some of the questions surrounding the design of energized treatments. The new model is capable of handling any multi-component mixture of fluids and chemicals. Changes in fluid density, composition, and temperature are predicted using an energy balance equation and an equation of state. A wellbore model, which relates the surface and bottomhole conditions, determines the pumping requirements. Fracture performance is assessed by a fractured well productivity model that accounts for damage in the invaded zone and finite fracture conductivity. The combination of the fracture, productivity, and wellbore models forms a standalone simulator that is suitable for designing and optimizing energized treatments. The simulator offers a wide range of capabilities, making it suitable for many different applications ranging from hydraulic fracturing to long-term injections for enhanced oil recovery, well clean-up, or carbon sequestration purposes. The model is applicable to any well configuration: vertical, deviated, or horizontal. The resolution of the full 3D elasticity problem enables us to propagate the fracture across multiple layers, where height growth is controlled by the vertical distribution of the minimum horizontal stress. We conducted several sensitivity studies to compare the fracture propagation, productivity, and pumping requirements of various fluid candidates in different reservoirs. The results show that good proppant placement and high fracture conductivities can be achieved with foams and gelled fluid formulations. Foams provide a wide range of viscosities without using excessive amounts of gelling agents. They also provide superior fluid-loss control, as the filter-cake is supplemented by the presence of gas bubbles that reduce liquid-flow into the porous medium. CO₂, LPG, and N₂ expand significantly (by 15% or more) as the reservoir heats the fluid inside the fracture. These fluids show virtually no damage in the invaded zone, which is a significant improvement upon water-based fluids in reservoirs that are prone to water blocking. These results, however, are contingent on an accurate fluid characterization supported by experimental data; therefore, our work advocates for complementary experimental studies on fluid rheology, proppant transport, and fluid leak-off. A comprehensive sensitivity study over a wide range of reservoir conditions identified five key reservoir parameters for fluid selection: relative permeability curve, initial gas saturation, reservoir pressure, changes to rock mechanical properties, and water-sensitivity. Because energized fluids provide similar rheology and leak-off behaviors as water-based fluids, the primary design question it to evaluate the extent of the damaged zone against costs, fluid availability, and/or safety hazards. If the fluid-induced damage is acceptable, water-based fluids constitute a simple and attractive solution; otherwise, energized fluids are recommended. Notably, energized fluids are well-suited for reservoirs that are depleted, under-saturated, and/or water-sensitive. These fluids are also favorable in areas with a limited water supply. As water resources become constrained in many areas, reducing the water footprint and the environmental impact is of paramount concern, thereby making the use of energized treatments particularly attractive to replace or subsidize water in the fracturing process. / text

Hydraulic fracturing is essential for producing gas and oil at an economic rate from low permeability sands. Most fracturing treatments use water and polymers with a gelling agent as a fracturing fluid. The water is held in the small pore spaces by capillary pressure and is not recovered when drawdown pressures are low. The un-recovered water leaves a water saturated zone around the fracture face that stops the flow of gas into the fracture. This is a particularly acute problem in low permeability formations where capillary pressures are high. Depletion (lower reservoir pressures) causes a limitation on the drawdown pressure that can be applied. A hydraulic fracturing process can be energized by the addition of a compressible, sometimes soluble, gas phase into the treatment fluid. When the well is produced, the energized fluid expands and gas comes out of solution. Energizing the fluid creates high gas saturation in the invaded zone, thereby facilitating gas flowback. A new compositional hydraulic fracturing model has been created (EFRAC). This is the first model to include changes in composition, temperature, and phase behavior of the fluid inside the fracture. An equation of state is used to evaluate the phase behavior of the fluid. These compositional effects are coupled with the fluid rheology, proppant transport, and mechanics of fracture growth to create a general model for fracture creation when energized fluids are used. In addition to the fracture propagation model, we have also introduced another new model for hydraulically fractured well productivity. This is the first and only model that takes into account both finite fracture conductivity and damage in the invaded zone in a simple analytical way. EFRAC was successfully used to simulate several fracture treatments in a gas field in South Texas. Based on production estimates, energized fluids may be required when drawdown pressures are smaller than the capillary forces in the formation. For this field, the minimum CO2 gas quality (volume % of gas) recommended is 30% for moderate differences between fracture and reservoir pressures (2900 psi reservoir, 5300 psi fracture). The minimum quality is reduced to 20% when the difference between pressures is larger, resulting in additional gas expansion in the invaded zone. Inlet fluid temperature, flowrate, and base viscosity did not have a large impact on fracture production. Finally, every stage of the fracturing treatment should be energized with a gas component to ensure high gas saturation in the invaded zone. A second, more general, sensitivity study was conducted. Simulations show that CO2 outperforms N2 as a fluid component because it has higher solubility in water at fracturing temperatures and pressures. In fact, all gas components with higher solubility in water will increase the fluid’s ability to reduce damage in the invaded zone. Adding methanol to the fracturing solution can increase the solubility of CO2. N2 should only be used if the gas leaks-off either during the creation of the fracture or during closure, resulting in gas going into the invaded zone. Experimental data is needed to determine if the gas phase leaks-off during the creation of the fracture. Simulations show that the bubbles in a fluid traveling across the face of a porous medium are not likely to attach to the surface of the rock, the filter cake, or penetrate far into the porous medium. In summary, this research has created the first compositional fracturing simulator, a useful tool to aid in energized fracture design. We have made several important and original conclusions about the best practices when using energized fluids in tight gas sands. The models and tools presented here may be used in the future to predict behavior of any multi-phase or multi-component fracturing fluid system. / text

With the growing interest in low-permeability gas plays, foam fracturing fluids are now well established as a viable alternative to traditional fracturing fluids. Present practices in energized fracturing treatments remain nonetheless rudimentary in comparison to other fracturing fluid technologies because of our limited understanding of multi-phase fluid-loss and phase behavior occurring in these complex fluids. This report assesses the fluid-loss benefits introduced by energizing the fracturing fluid. A new laboratory apparatus has been specifically designed and built for measuring the leak-off rates for both gas and liquid phases under dynamic fluid-loss conditions. This report provides experimental leak-off results for linear guar gels and for N2-guar foam-based fracturing fluids under a wide range of fracturing conditions. In particular, the effects of the rock permeability, the foam quality, and the pressure drop are investigated. Analysis of dynamic leak-off data provide an understanding of the complex mechanisms of viscous invasion and filter-cake formation occurring at the pore-scale. This study presents data supporting the superior fluid-loss behavior of foams, which exhibit minor liquid invasion and limited damage. It also shows direct measurements of the ability of the gas component to leak-off into the invaded zone, thereby increasing the gas saturation around the fracture and enhancing the gas productivity during flowback. Our conclusions not only confirm, but add to the findings of McGowen and Vitthal (1996) for linear gels, and the findings of Harris (1985) for nitrogen foams. / text

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-08T14:53:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 728032 bytes, checksum: 571a739faae06fee8e9f5c89a1920c1a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-08-26 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This thesis had the objective of proposing a complementation, with proactive character, to method and procedures of evaluation concerning occupational exposure to heat predicted in the norms NR-15/1978 and NHO 06/2002, respectively. The electricians of the maintenance team of energized lines at potential, in tension of 69 kV, from Companhia Energética de Alagoas (CEAL) composed the group of workers monitored. The main objective was achieved by measuring climate variables (dry bulb temperature, natural wet bulb temperature, globe temperature and air speed), calculating Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT), estimating personal variables (metabolism rate and thermal isolation of clothing being used at the time of work development), investigating weight loss rate caused by work accomplishment and evaluating through Norm ISO 7933/89. Besides measures, it was made a comparison between different norms (ISO 7243/89; ISO 7933/89; ISO 8996/90; ISO 7730/94; ISO 9920/95) and recommendations (ABHO/98) in order to fill any gaps still remaining in Brazilian norms that rule the subject. One of the main assumptions proved through the evaluations is related to the significant water loss the worker is submitted every working hour, when work accomplishment demands the use of special protective clothing. When water loss exceeds the limits specified in the Norm ISO 7933/89, it is reasonable to conclude that physiological consequences harmful to worker s health may occur. Considering that specific approach, Brazilian legal documents fail. From the working regimes specified in NR-15/1978, the one that admits the work may be performed continuously shows the most agreeable conditions in relation to insalubrity. In one of the working situations examined simply with the use of WBGT, the working regime defined was continuous. However, when based on Norm ISO 7933/89, that same working situation demands that work execution should be interrupted after approximately 30 (thirty) minutes from the beginning, as a way of limiting heat accumulation in the body. For the latter protection requirement may be considered by NR-15/1978, it is necessary that WBGT index moves from 26,7º C, value that defines the work is likely to be executed continuously, at least to 28,1º C, which is the low limit of the range that defines a pause after 30 (thirty) minutes from the very beginning of work execution. As the difference between the above-mentioned WBGT s is 1,4º C, this is the value that should be added to WBGT index acquired, as a way of compensating the effects produced by the clothing. Besides the pauses provided, another significant result of the evaluation according to Norm ISO 7933/89 is time limitation of exposure due to water loss. The maximum of a day s work for all the situations investigated was stipulated in 300 (three hundred) minutes (five hours). The results of the research should be understood as restricted to climate and personal conditions described in the present paper. Yet, they may serve as a demarcation in order to specify proper conditions of execution of labor activities in situations distinct from the ones examined. / Esta tese teve como objetivo propor uma complementação, com caráter proativo, ao método e aos procedimentos de avaliação da exposição ocupacional ao calor previstos nas normas NR-15/1978 e NHO 06/2002, respectivamente. A população escolhida para este estudo de caso foi aquela composta pelos eletricistas da turma de manutenção de linhas energizadas ao potencial, na tensão de 69 kV, da Companhia Energética de Alagoas (CEAL). O objetivo principal foi alcançado através das medidas das variáveis climáticas (temperatura de bulbo seco, de bulbo úmido natural, de globo e da velocidade do ar), do cálculo do Índice de Bulbo Úmido Termômetro de Globo (IBUTG), da estimativa das variáveis pessoais (taxa de metabolismo e isolamento térmico das vestes utilizadas quando do desenvolvimento das atividades), da apuração da taxa de perda de peso provocada pela realização das tarefas e da avaliação através da Norma ISO 7933/89. Além das medidas efetuadas, houve a confrontação de diferentes normas (ISO 7243/89; ISO 7933/89; ISO 8996/90; ISO 7730/94; ISO 9920/95) e recomendações (ABHO/98) relacionadas à matéria, de tal forma que as lacunas existentes nas normas brasileiras que regem o assunto pudessem ser preenchidas. Uma das principais constatações obtidas com as avaliações que integram esta pesquisa diz respeito à significativa perda hídrica por hora de trabalho a que pode ser submetido o organismo do trabalhador, quando a realização das tarefas exige a utilização de vestimentas especiais de proteção. Quando essa perda hídrica suplanta os limites especificados na Norma ISO 7933/89, é razoável concluir, com base nesta norma, que poderão ocorrer conseqüências fisiológicas danosas à saúde do trabalhador. Sobre essa abordagem específica os documentos legais brasileiros são omissos. Dos regimes de trabalho previstos pela NR-15/1978, o que reflete as condições mais amenas em relação à insalubridade é aquele que permite que as tarefas sejam executadas de forma contínua. Em uma das situações de trabalho avaliadas com a simples utilização do IBUTG, o regime de trabalho definido foi contínuo. No entanto, essa mesma situação de trabalho quando avaliada com base na Norma ISO 7933/89 exige que a execução das tarefas seja interrompida depois de transcorridos aproximadamente 30 minutos do seu início, como forma de limitar a acumulação de calor no organismo. Para que este último requisito de proteção seja contemplado pela NR-15/1978, há necessidade de que o IBUTG utilizado na avaliação avance de 26,7ºC, valor que define a possibilidade das tarefas serem realizadas de forma contínua, até, pelo menos, 28,1 ºC, que é o limite inferior da faixa que define a pausa depois de transcorridos 30 min (trinta minutos) do início da execução das tarefas. Como a diferença entre aqueles IBUTG s é de 1,4 ºC, este é o valor que deverá ser adicionado ao IBUTG lido/apurado, como forma de se compensar os efeitos provocados pelas vestes. Além de providenciar as pausas, outro resultado significativo da avaliação pela Norma ISO 7933/89 é a limitação do tempo de exposição em função da perda de água. A jornada máxima de trabalho, para todas as situações avaliadas, foi estipulada em 300 minutos (5 horas). Os resultados da pesquisa devem ser entendidos como restritos às condições climáticas e pessoais descritas no presente trabalho, podendo servir, no entanto, de balizamento para que se procure especificar condições adequadas de execução das atividades laborais em situações distintas daquelas avaliadas.

The power distribution infrastructure in the United States is deteriorating at a rapid rate exposing infrastructure wiring and creating potential shock hazards. Periodic road and sidewalk maintenance projects can also expose wiring and create energized objects. In urban settings inadvertently energized objects include: lamp posts, bus shelters, metal street curbs, sign posts, transformer vaults, and manhole covers as well as concrete and asphalt pavement. Every year electric shocks occur when people and domestic animals (such as dogs and cats) make incidental contact with these energized objects. In very rare cases the shocks from these contacts are lethal. Through current personal research, a new handheld detector was developed. It uses the emissions of an energized object to pinpoint the location and further analyzes the emissions to determine the likely cause of the shock hazard. This thesis focuses on advancing detection technology and creating a more capable, production-ready unit.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-17T14:53:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Julio Cesar Nascimento Sousa.pdf: 971697 bytes, checksum: b4ee5e79977202a1c5eba4528ed34766 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-09-22 / This work focuses on the modeling of single-phase and three-phase distribution with earth return, for high impedance faults analysis. The main motivation is the lack of definitive solutions for such faults. These faults often occur when an overhead conductor breaks and falls on high impedance surface such as asphalt road, cement, trees, among others. That fault is analyzed in a Single wire earth return system - SWER, and in a rural three-phase feeder. The SWER is deduced starting from a generic three-phase system, where simplifications based on practical assumptions are added. Simulations are accomplished in two distribution test systems, with the objective of identifying the behavior pattern of the high impedance faults. It is also included a discussion and analysis of results and suggestions related to future works. / Este trabalho focaliza a modelagem das redes de distribuição monofásicas e trifásicas com retorno por terra, para análise das faltas de alta impedância. A motivação principal está no fato de não existirem soluções definitivas para essas faltas. Este tipo de falta ocorre quando um cabo energizado rompe e cai sobre um tipo de superfície, tal como asfalto, areia, árvores, dentre outros. Essa falta é analisada em uma rede Monofásica com Retorno por Terra MRT em uma rede trifásica rural. A rede MRT é deduzida a partir de uma rede trifásica genérica, onde são adicionadas hipóteses simplificadoras práticas. São realizadas simulações em dois sistemas testes de distribuição, com o objetivo de identificar o padrão de comportamento das faltas de alta impedância. É realizada uma discussão e análise de resultados, sugerindo-se trabalhos futuros.