Riksbyggen, one of Sweden’s largest real estate companies, are planning to build a new residential area outside Uppsala, Sweden. Adjacent to the houses in the area, Riksbyggen are considering installing a 137 kWp photovoltaic (PV) system to supply the residents with renewable energy. In the first part of this study, the proposed PV system is analyzed based on benefits and profitability for the residents, using the software HOMER. Possibilities for including 3 kWp roof-mounted PV systems with varying azimuth as a complement to the larger system are evaluated. In the second part, options for implementing an Energy Management System (EMS) with battery storage or load shifting in the distribution grid using MATLAB. The system uses forecasting of PV generation, electricity prices and electricity demand to optimize the system control strategies. The results from the study indicate that installation of the 137 kWp PV system could lead to reduced average electricity costs of 21,1 % for the residents. If the system is completed with roof-mounted PV modules of varying azimuth for 12 % of the households in the area, the average electricity cost is reduced by 29,4 %in total. Implementing an EMS with energy storage in the distribution grid was not found to be an economically viable option, mainly due to high energy storage costs. The system control strategies can be improved by using forecasting. The economic benefits of load shifting for a single household were found to be too low to give incentive for system investment.

thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree: Master of Technology: Electrical Engineering in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology / Rural communities are often unable to access electrical energy due to their distant location away from the national grid. Renewable energy sources (RESs) make it possible to provide electrical energy to these isolated areas. Sustainable generation is possible at a local level and is not dependant on connection to a national power grid. Microgrids are small scale, stand-alone electricity networks that harness energy at its geographical location, from natural resources. These small scale power grids are either connected to a national grid or operate separately by obtaining their power from an RES. Microgrids are becoming increasingly popular because they can provide electricity, independently of the national grid. The size of microgrid systems are dependent on the amount of energy that needs to be drawn and the amount of energy that has to be stored. Mechanical and electrical system component sizes become bigger due to increased operational energy requirements. Increases in component sizes are required on growing power networks when higher current levels are drawn. Energy management of microgrids must thus be introduced to prevent overloading the power grid network and to extend the operational life of the storage batteries. Energy management systems consist of different components which are seen as operational units. Operational units are responsible for measurement, communication, decision–making and power supply switching control, to manipulate the power output to meet the energy demands. Due to the increasing popularity of DC home appliances, it is important to explore the possibility of keeping these microgrids on a DC voltage basis. Electrical generation equipment such as photovoltaic panels can be used to generate DC at designed voltage levels. The energy management system connects the user loads and generation units together to form the microgrid. The aim of this study was to carry out the design of an agent–based energy management system for rural and under-developed communities. It investigates how the control of the output of the energy management system can be carried out to service the loads. The simulations were done using the following software packages: Simulink, Matlab, and SimPowerSystems. PV sources, energy management system (EMS) and user load parameters are varied in the simulation software to observe how the control algorithm executes load shedding. A stokvel-type charge share concept is dealt with where the state-of-charge (SOC) of batteries and user consumption will determine how grid loads are managed. Load shedding within the grid is executed by monitoring energy flow and calculating how much energy is allowed to be used by each consumer. The energy management system is programmed to always provide the largest amount of energy to the consumer with the lowest energy consumption for each day. The batteries store surplus electrical energy during the day. Load shedding starts at 18:00 each day. Users will be disconnected from the grid whenever their allotted energy capacity were depleted.

The efficiency, security and resiliency are very important factors for the operation of a distribution power system. Taking into account customer demand and energy resource constraints, electric utilities not only need to provide reliable services but also need to operate a power grid as efficiently as possible. The objective of this dissertation is to design, develop and deploy the Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) - together with control algorithms - that enable demand response (DR) implementation at the customer level, focusing on both residential and commercial customers. For residential applications, the main objective is to propose an approach for a smart distribution transformer management. The DR objective at a distribution transformer is to ensure that the instantaneous power demand at a distribution transformer is kept below a certain demand limit while impacts of demand restrike are minimized. The DR objectives at residential homes are to secure critical loads, mitigate occupant comfort violation, and minimize appliance run-time after a DR event. For commercial applications, the goal is to propose a MAS architecture and platform that help facilitate the implementation of a Critical Peak Pricing (CPP) program. Main objectives of the proposed DR algorithm are to minimize power demand and energy consumption during a period that a CPP event is called out, to minimize occupant comfort violation, to minimize impacts of demand restrike after a CPP event, as well as to control the device operation to avoid restrikes. Overall, this study provides an insight into the design and implementation of MAS, together with associated control algorithms for DR implementation in smart buildings. The proposed approaches can serve as alternative solutions to the current practices of electric utilities to engage end-use customers to participate in DR programs where occupancy level, tenant comfort condition and preference, as well as controllable devices and sensors are taken into account in both simulated and real-world environments. Research findings show that the proposed DR algorithms can perform effectively and efficiently during a DR event in residential homes and during the CPP event in commercial buildings. / Ph. D.

The current state of Ontario???s electricity system and natural environment has prompted the provincial government to call for the province to adopt a ???culture of conservation.??? Answering this call will involve the promotion of a variety of solutions. Included in that will be the use of information and communication technology, which encompasses technologies such as home energy management system (HEMS). It is believed that the feedback and home automation features of the HEMS will enable its users to alter their electricity consumption behaviours, via net reductions and/or load shifting. This study has assessed the ability of HEMS to encourage reduction in total and on-peak electricity consumption while in a time-of-use pricing environment. Additional focus was on which consumers had the greatest success using the HEMS to adopt electricity conservation behaviours. Two hundred and sixteen participants of a Milton, Ontario HEMS pilot study were chosen to take part in this case study. These participants were divided into two equal groups: a sample group, those who received a HEMS, and a control group, those who did not receive a HEMS. Participants from both groups were asked to complete two surveys and allow their electricity consumption data to be analyzed. The initial survey was to establish some baseline information about the participants. The second survey was designed to determine if changes had occurred in the household since the initial baseline survey. Through the analysis of the survey and households electricity consumption data, conclusions were drawn on how participants used the HEMS. The study had a 2.9% relative reduction in total electricity consumption and a 13.2% relative reduction in on-peak electricity consumption. However, additional analysis of the results revealed promising findings with regard to the HEMS ability to catalyze conservation and demand management among recent time-of-use pricing adopters.

This research presents a two-part study on a fuel cell electric van (FCEV), focusing on vehicle modelling and developing different control strategies for the modelled vehicle. The modelling phase accounts for the aging effects on the fuel cell (FC) and battery, analyzing FCEV behavior over time. This includes estimating and integrating the degradation impacts on characteristic curves, such as the FC’s polarization and efficiency curves, the battery’s charging and discharging resistance curves, and the open-circuit voltage curve. A simplified fuel cell system (FCS) model is designed to consider power losses in multiple components, including the FC stack, air compressor, and others. The dynamic limits of the FC are also included to yield more realistic results. The model is based on the vehicle Opel Vivaro FC specifications, incorporating parameters like maximum FC power, battery capacity, vehicle weight, and tire dimensions. Subsequently, various control strategies are applied to analyze their effectiveness in FC and battery State-of-Health (SOH) degradation and hydrogen consumption. A rule-based energy management system (EMS) is implemented first, which operates with five different operational modes dependent on the vehicle’s state. This is followed by a look-up table (LUT) based strategy, which uses two two-dimensional tables generated by a Neural Network (NN). The network is trained with discretized optimal / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

The gold mining industry pollutes both water and air resources in numerous ways. Of these, air pollution from greenhouse gasses inducing climate change poses the highest threat to human existence, with water scarcity as a result of pollution presenting the third highest risk (Mathews, 2007; Akorede et al., 2012; Jones et al., 1988). Water pollution, indirect air pollution and direct air pollution should be mitigated for sustainable gold mining. Environmental impact reduction is achieved by the implementation of effective Environmental Management Systems (EMSs). These systems aim to achieve ISO 14001-compliance by setting targets and implementing a systematic approach to achieving these targets. However, ISO 14001-compliant systems do not ensure environmental impact reduction and give the mine no competitive edge (Hilson & Nayee, 2002). EMSs available are too generic for implementation on gold mines. Reporting on Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) on gold mines should also be improved as it is unclear exactly what values should be reported on. This is due to a general lack of an environmental reporting standard (Jones, 2010). Manpower and expertise to identify and implement projects is limited and the mines need assistance with the implementation of projects to effect resource pollution. Priority for the mines is an emphasis on production and safety rather than environmental impact reduction, so implementing projects to reduce pollution is often neglected. A novel sustainability framework is developed in this study. In this framework a database of electricity- and environmental impact reduction projects is created that can be implemented in the gold mining industry. Projects are automatically identified by monitoring key operational indicators. By involving a third party in the form of an Energy Services Company (ESCO), project funding for these sustainability projects can be attained. This novel approach to environmental impact reduction creates a situation where ESCOs implement these EMSs at a reduced cost to the mines. This reduces the cost of lowering the mine’s environmental impact, while aiding the ESCO in identifying sustainability projects. KPIs from various studies are consolidated to determine exactly what values should be reported on. These values are incorporated into a successful EMS. This allows the availability of all the necessary data for reporting to the Department of Energy (DoE) and the South African National Energy Development Institute (SANEDI) on electricity-savings. Projects are prioritised based on an integrated electricity- and environmental impact reduction payback approach. This approach allows funding options to be assessed for each project individually, based on both electricity- and environmental impact reduction advantages. This allowed the best funding option for each individual project to be determined. Automatic identification of these projects reduces the required manpower and resources to implement sustainability projects. Projects proposed by this study showed a combined energy efficiency reduction of 11.8 MW and achieved a load shift of 15.6 MW. In addition to electricity reduction, these projects also reduced the water usage by 1135 Ml per annum and the carbon dioxide equivalent production by 214 205 ton per annum. The proposed projects were effective at increasing the sustainability of gold mining. It also streamlined the implementation of these projects on gold mines. By applying this framework, sustainability improvements can now be achieved on gold mines worldwide. / PhD (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

South African industries are challenged with above inflation electricity tariffs which may affect their competitiveness within their relative markets. In order to successfully manage these rising electricity costs and ensuing top market competition, a well organised demand side management (DSM) strategy must be implemented. Energy service companies (ESCos) have been assisting Eskom, South Africa’s leading electricity utility, in managing energy projects around the country. These DSM projects have introduced remarkable electricity and cost savings. However, the need for a sustainable energy management system (EnMS) within these projects does exist. This dissertation illustrates and discusses an EnMS designed to achieve maximum possible energy savings performances. The ISO 9 001 (quality management), ISO 14 001 (environmental management) and ISO 50 001 (energy management) standards were integrated for the development and implementation of this system. It provides a framework for project engineers and industrial clients to apply before, during and after project implementation. The use of the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle will be applied throughout the dissertation. The PDCA cycle follows basic steps recommended by the relevant ISO standards. This cycle emphasises the concept of continual improvement. The developed EnMS was successfully implemented on various DSM projects. This selection includes previously maintained and new implemented projects. An analysis between the implementation and post- implementation performances supports the achieved results. The results of the case studies are presented in this dissertation. This dissertation illustrates that the continual improvement of an ISO based EnMS will result in a sustainable increase in electricity savings. An overall increase in project quality can be defined and measured according to the electricity consumptions and electricity cost savings. These electricity cost savings from the selected projects resulted to nearly R18 million during project implementation. A total amount of R52 million was already saved during the maintenance phase of 2014. This cost savings only reflect the results of the eight selected projects for the first eight months in 2014. The EnMS explained in this dissertation indicates that a continually controlled framework can improve the quality of DSM project implementation and sustainability. With the flexibility of changing the system according to impulsive constraints and client demands, the system can be used with various DSM projects. / MIng (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

The gold mining industry pollutes both water and air resources in numerous ways. Of these, air pollution from greenhouse gasses inducing climate change poses the highest threat to human existence, with water scarcity as a result of pollution presenting the third highest risk (Mathews, 2007; Akorede et al., 2012; Jones et al., 1988). Water pollution, indirect air pollution and direct air pollution should be mitigated for sustainable gold mining. Environmental impact reduction is achieved by the implementation of effective Environmental Management Systems (EMSs). These systems aim to achieve ISO 14001-compliance by setting targets and implementing a systematic approach to achieving these targets. However, ISO 14001-compliant systems do not ensure environmental impact reduction and give the mine no competitive edge (Hilson & Nayee, 2002). EMSs available are too generic for implementation on gold mines. Reporting on Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) on gold mines should also be improved as it is unclear exactly what values should be reported on. This is due to a general lack of an environmental reporting standard (Jones, 2010). Manpower and expertise to identify and implement projects is limited and the mines need assistance with the implementation of projects to effect resource pollution. Priority for the mines is an emphasis on production and safety rather than environmental impact reduction, so implementing projects to reduce pollution is often neglected. A novel sustainability framework is developed in this study. In this framework a database of electricity- and environmental impact reduction projects is created that can be implemented in the gold mining industry. Projects are automatically identified by monitoring key operational indicators. By involving a third party in the form of an Energy Services Company (ESCO), project funding for these sustainability projects can be attained. This novel approach to environmental impact reduction creates a situation where ESCOs implement these EMSs at a reduced cost to the mines. This reduces the cost of lowering the mine’s environmental impact, while aiding the ESCO in identifying sustainability projects. KPIs from various studies are consolidated to determine exactly what values should be reported on. These values are incorporated into a successful EMS. This allows the availability of all the necessary data for reporting to the Department of Energy (DoE) and the South African National Energy Development Institute (SANEDI) on electricity-savings. Projects are prioritised based on an integrated electricity- and environmental impact reduction payback approach. This approach allows funding options to be assessed for each project individually, based on both electricity- and environmental impact reduction advantages. This allowed the best funding option for each individual project to be determined. Automatic identification of these projects reduces the required manpower and resources to implement sustainability projects. Projects proposed by this study showed a combined energy efficiency reduction of 11.8 MW and achieved a load shift of 15.6 MW. In addition to electricity reduction, these projects also reduced the water usage by 1135 Ml per annum and the carbon dioxide equivalent production by 214 205 ton per annum. The proposed projects were effective at increasing the sustainability of gold mining. It also streamlined the implementation of these projects on gold mines. By applying this framework, sustainability improvements can now be achieved on gold mines worldwide. / PhD (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

South African industries are challenged with above inflation electricity tariffs which may affect their competitiveness within their relative markets. In order to successfully manage these rising electricity costs and ensuing top market competition, a well organised demand side management (DSM) strategy must be implemented. Energy service companies (ESCos) have been assisting Eskom, South Africa’s leading electricity utility, in managing energy projects around the country. These DSM projects have introduced remarkable electricity and cost savings. However, the need for a sustainable energy management system (EnMS) within these projects does exist. This dissertation illustrates and discusses an EnMS designed to achieve maximum possible energy savings performances. The ISO 9 001 (quality management), ISO 14 001 (environmental management) and ISO 50 001 (energy management) standards were integrated for the development and implementation of this system. It provides a framework for project engineers and industrial clients to apply before, during and after project implementation. The use of the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle will be applied throughout the dissertation. The PDCA cycle follows basic steps recommended by the relevant ISO standards. This cycle emphasises the concept of continual improvement. The developed EnMS was successfully implemented on various DSM projects. This selection includes previously maintained and new implemented projects. An analysis between the implementation and post- implementation performances supports the achieved results. The results of the case studies are presented in this dissertation. This dissertation illustrates that the continual improvement of an ISO based EnMS will result in a sustainable increase in electricity savings. An overall increase in project quality can be defined and measured according to the electricity consumptions and electricity cost savings. These electricity cost savings from the selected projects resulted to nearly R18 million during project implementation. A total amount of R52 million was already saved during the maintenance phase of 2014. This cost savings only reflect the results of the eight selected projects for the first eight months in 2014. The EnMS explained in this dissertation indicates that a continually controlled framework can improve the quality of DSM project implementation and sustainability. With the flexibility of changing the system according to impulsive constraints and client demands, the system can be used with various DSM projects. / MIng (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

In the last two decades, energy is becoming one of the main issues in the manufacturing industry as it contributes substantially to production cost, CO2 emissions, and other destructive environmental impact. Due to rising energy costs, environmental concerns and stringent regulations, manufacturing is increasingly driven towards sustainable manufacturing which needs to address the associated environmental, social and economic aspects simultaneously. One common approach is to achieve sustainability and to implement energy-resource efficient production management systems that enable optimisation of energy consumption and resource utilisation in the production system. However, by reducing energy consumption, the product quality and production cost may be compromised. To remain competitive in the dynamic environment, the energy-efficient management system should not only concern energy consumption but also maintain product quality and production efficiency. This thesis presents a development of the Energy-smart Production Management (e-ProMan) system which provides a systematic, virtual simulation that integrates manufacturing data relating to thermal effect and correlation analysis between energy flow, work flow and data flow for the heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system and production process. First, the e-ProMan system comprises of the multidimensional analysis between energy flow, work flow and data flow. The results showed that the product quality is significantly affected by ambient temperature in CNC precision machining. Product quality appears to be improved at lower temperatures. This research highlights the significance of ambient temperature in sustainable precision machining. Second, the simulation experiment was modelled at the production process due to it being the main source of energy consumption in manufacturing. An up-hill workload scenario was found to be the most energy and cost-efficient production processes. In other words, energy consumption, CO2 emission and total manufacturing cost could be reduced when workload capacity and operating machine increase incrementally. Moreover, the e-ProMan system was modelled and simulated using the weather forecast and real-time ambient temperature to reduce energy consumption of the HVAC system. The e-ProMan system results in less energy consumption compared to the fuzzy control system. To conclude, the e-ProMan demonstrates energy efficiency at all relevant levels in the manufacturing: machine, process and plant. For the future research, the e-ProMan system needs to be applied and validated in actual manufacturing environments.