The landscape of education and the students served in schools has changed over the last few decades and is becoming more diverse (National Center for Education Statistics, 2017). Methods of special education evaluation in schools are also changing to meet the needs of a dynamic population. Best practices for specific learning disability (SLD) identification recommend the use of effective evaluation methods that inform educational decisions. Many models of SLD identification have been proposed throughout the history of SLD classification. Though many school psychologists have relied on the discrepancy model of learning disability identification, many alternative evaluation methods are coming into popularity. Best practices for SLD identification are changing to meet the needs of a culturally and linguistically diverse student population. Experts in administering culturally appropriate assessments for English language learners (ELLs) recommend that the areas of culture, language, and schooling be examined in order to ensure a valid and fair evaluation for this population (U.S. Department of Education, 2000). This study specifically examined current assessment practices of Utah school psychologists when assessing ELLs for learning disabilities by examining the most essential components of language proficiency, acculturation, academic skills, and intellectual functioning. This study additionally examined the barriers and recommendations of school psychologists when assessing ELLs. A sample of 84 Utah school psychologists completed a survey about assessment practices as part of assessing an ELL for a suspected SLD. Findings from this study indicate school psychologists' responses align with the guiding principles that surround the assessment of ELLs. Participants indicated the importance of standardized measurements when assessing all areas except acculturation. Additionally, participants identified time, lack of resources, incomplete assessment instruments, and limited training and competency as major barriers for professionals working with ELLs. Results from this study can be used to inform and improve practice based on the respondents' recommendations, which included more resources allocated to acculturation assessment and more training from school districts and university training programs in the areas of ELL assessment.

Policy guidelines of the Education Quality and Accountability Office (EQAO) state that accommodations and participation decisions on the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test (OSSLT) do not threaten validity. However, these issues are contentious in American large-scale testing. New approaches integrate test access, administration, accommodation and participation within a unified fairness and validity construct. The current study, based on demographic and outcome data for the entire population of OSSLT-eligible students from 2006 to 2009, demonstrates changing patterns in accommodations and participation decisions across schools and years. In particular, English language learners are found to be considerably underrepresented among students receiving special needs accommodations. This has implications for the valid interpretation and fair use of test scores. Recommendations are proposed for improving fairness, consistency, and validity in administering accommodations and participation.

This study uses a mixed methods approach to investigate an achievement gap observed in the reading of Canadian-born students with a first language other than English. Quantitative analyses of large-scale reading assessment data identified characteristics of these students and showed a relationship between reading levels and students’ home language environments. This relationship was further explored using a case study approach based on interviews with students and parents. Interviews revealed the role that parental language learning can play in children’s reading. The study revealed the relative invisibility of Canadian-born English language learners, and the consequent difficulties educators have responding to their English language learning needs. School registration data was shown to be an inaccurate indication of students’ home language use. The study’s findings point to the need for policies that support the systematic identification of Canadian-born English language learners and a deeper understanding of the language learning needs of these students-at-risk.

Policy guidelines of the Education Quality and Accountability Office (EQAO) state that accommodations and participation decisions on the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test (OSSLT) do not threaten validity. However, these issues are contentious in American large-scale testing. New approaches integrate test access, administration, accommodation and participation within a unified fairness and validity construct. The current study, based on demographic and outcome data for the entire population of OSSLT-eligible students from 2006 to 2009, demonstrates changing patterns in accommodations and participation decisions across schools and years. In particular, English language learners are found to be considerably underrepresented among students receiving special needs accommodations. This has implications for the valid interpretation and fair use of test scores. Recommendations are proposed for improving fairness, consistency, and validity in administering accommodations and participation.

This study uses a mixed methods approach to investigate an achievement gap observed in the reading of Canadian-born students with a first language other than English. Quantitative analyses of large-scale reading assessment data identified characteristics of these students and showed a relationship between reading levels and students’ home language environments. This relationship was further explored using a case study approach based on interviews with students and parents. Interviews revealed the role that parental language learning can play in children’s reading. The study revealed the relative invisibility of Canadian-born English language learners, and the consequent difficulties educators have responding to their English language learning needs. School registration data was shown to be an inaccurate indication of students’ home language use. The study’s findings point to the need for policies that support the systematic identification of Canadian-born English language learners and a deeper understanding of the language learning needs of these students-at-risk.

This study examined teachers' and administrators' perceptions of English language learner dropout antecedents at 95 secondary schools in Texas targeting two goals. First, perceptions of ninth-grade dropout were assessed to identify push, pull, or falling-out factors of dropout. Push factors include school-related consequences like attendance or disciplinary infractions. Pull factors include out-of-school enticements like jobs and family. Finally, fall factors refer to student disconnection with school leading to dropout. Second, four categories of dropout factors (student demographics, student experiences, school factors, and instructional practices) were tested to see which had the highest perceived rank. The first research question assessed ninth-grade academic engagement and dropout antecedents among ELL dropouts. Engagement factors including persistence and previous preparation for high school were perceived as highly important qualities while discipline problems were a major challenge. Falling-out factors were perceived at the highest rank in causing ninth-grade ELL dropout. Among falling-out factors, lack of L1/L2 proficiency was cited as a chief cause, conflicting with nationally representative studies. Push factors, including low achievement, ranked second and pull factors, last. The second research question assessed perceptions of ELL dropout according to four ELL dropout categories. Antecedents related to student experiences ranked highest in causing ELL dropout, including language proficiency, employment, and parenting needs. Thus, ELL's were perceived as the primary reason for ELL dropout, concurring with nationally representative studies. Overall, ESL teachers and coordinators reported ninth-grade falling-out factors and pull factors during high school at higher rates than other respondents. They placed the major blame for dropout on events in student's lives luring them from school. Regular teachers reported that ninth-grade ELL dropouts profoundly struggled with language proficiency, lack of effort, and lack of belonging, suggesting that cumulative challenges of ELLs resulted in dropout. Administrators reported a strong link between retention and ELL dropout. When combined with regular teachers, both had a unified perception of blame for dropout being on factors at home and work. Findings suggest developing comprehensive dropout antecedent lists for ELLs, studying early and late ELL dropout, and incorporating a qualitative methodology in survey techniques.

This quantitative study explored the impact of literacy integration in a science inquiry classroom involving the use of science notebooks on the academic language development and conceptual understanding of students from diverse (i.e., English Language Learners, or ELLs) and low socio-economic status (low-SES) backgrounds. The study derived from a randomized, longitudinal, field-based NSF funded research project (NSF Award No. DRL - 0822343) targeting ELL and non-ELL students from low-SES backgrounds in a large urban school district in Southeast Texas. The study used a scoring rubric (modified and tested for validity and reliability) to analyze fifth-grade school students’ science notebook entries. Scores for academic language quality (or, for brevity, language) were used to compare language growth over time across three time points (i.e., beginning, middle, and end of the school year) and to compare students across categories (ELL, former ELL, non-ELL, and gender) using descriptive statistics and mixed between-within subjects analysis of variance (ANOVA). Scores for conceptual understanding (or, for brevity, concept) were used to compare students across categories (ELL, former ELL, non-ELL, and gender) in three domains using descriptive statistics and ANOVA. A correlational analysis was conducted to explore the relationship, if any, between language scores and concept scores for each group. Students demonstrated statistically significant growth over time in their academic language as reflected by science notebook scores. While ELL students scored lower than former ELL and non-ELL students at the first two time points, they caught up to their peers by the third time point. Similarly, females outperformed males in language scores in the first two time points, but males caught up to females in the third time point. In analyzing conceptual scores, ELLs had statistically significant lower scores than former-ELL and non-ELL students, and females outperformed males in the first two domains. These differences, however, were not statistically significant in the last domain. Last, correlations between language and concept scores were overall, positive, large, and significant across domains and groups. The study presents a rubric useful for quantifying diverse students’ science notebook entries, and findings add to the sparse research on the impact of writing in diverse students’ language development and conceptual understanding in science.

Researchers in schools have had differing interpretations of effective implementation of response to intervention (RTI) models that have resulted in educators' confusion and misperceptions of the programs, especially with elementary English language learner (ELL) students. The purpose of this case study of 4 schools in an urban school district in the midwest was to explore how teachers used experiential, linguistic, and culturally responsive research-based instructional strategies in their classes to meet the needs of ELLs. Additionally, the RTI team process was explored to discover what experiential, linguistic, and culturally responsive research-based indicators they considered during the RTI decision making process regarding ELLs referred for Tier 2 intervention in reading. Two conceptual frameworks, Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol and World-Class Design and Assessment RTI2 protocol, operationalized the topic and guided the study. Results were derived from individual semistructured interviews with district instructional coaches and review of referral and recommendation documentation. Data were coded and a thematic analysis was conducted. Findings included the themes of misalignment of Tier 1 core instruction and Tier 2 intervention, inadequate teacher preparation, and limited differentiated support services. A professional learning project for teachers in the district was created based on the findings of this case study. The social change implications for results of the study and the project may be increased capacity building for teachers in inclusive classrooms and a precise and consistent understanding of the RTI model by all stakeholders. The study makes an original contribution to research on RTI implementation with ELLs at the local level and the results can be of value to other districts serving similar populations.

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The purpose of the study was to investigate the level of use of English as a second or subsequent language strategies and research-based practices in the instruction of ELL students in Northeast Tennessee. The study sought to ascertain the perceptions of educators in Northeast Tennessee about teaching practices and beliefs in regard to the instruction of ELL students and to determine to what level these educators include ESL strategies and ESL research-based practices when teaching ELL students. Participants in the study consisted of regular classroom teachers, English as a second language teachers, and principals from districts identified as ELL low density districts and ELL high density. A survey instrument was used to collect the data. The survey instrument was developed using a framework based on published research on proven practices identified and delineated in the literature review. The survey consisted of 45 questions and encompassed five dimensions: (a) instructional practices, (b) ESL strategies, (c) principles for building English language learners responsive learning environments, (d) staff development, and (e) instructional strategies. The survey used a 5-point Likert scale with 3 open-ended questions. Findings from the Research-Based Practices Survey were analyzed by using descriptive and inferential statistics. The study used 2-way ANOVAS to analyze the data and answer the research questions. The finding of the study revealed significant difference in the mean scores for staff development between administrators and ESL strategies as a function of density and significant difference in the mean scores for staff development between administrators and all teachers (ESL teachers and regular classroom teachers) as a function of density.