Educators are attempting to eliminate the disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education through initiatives such as Response to Intervention (RtI). Prior to the implementation of such initiatives, existing research relevant to this population must be critically reviewed and expanded. A synthesis of the available literature can provide significant insight into the type of data necessary to make informed decisions involving English language learners (ELL) at Tier I of an RtI model. In forming the theoretical foundation for this research, cognitive deficits associated with language-based disabilities and principles of cognitive load theory were examined. The study is an investigation of the following research question: Is the effectiveness of the bilingual English as a Second Language (ESL) model significantly altered under certain conditions? The research question was addressed through testing moderator effects using hierarchical linear regression. Initial English proficiency and initial Spanish proficiency were examined as moderating variables of the relationship between ESL model type and Kindergarten academic achievement. Academic achievement was defined as student learning growth on the Florida Assessment for Reading Instruction (FAIR) and student outcome scores on the Comprehensive English Language Learning Assessment (CELLA) Listening/Speaking and Reading constructs. Results supported: a) the relationship between initial English proficiency and FAIR growth, CELLA Listening/Speaking, and CELLA Reading, b) the relationship between initial Spanish proficiency and FAIR growth and CELLA Listening/Speaking, c) the relationship between type of ESL model and FAIR growth, CELLA Listening/Speaking, and CELLA iii Reading, d) the additional effect of the interaction of initial Spanish language proficiency with ESL model type to alter FAIR learning growth over time, and e) the additional effect of the interaction of initial English language proficiency with ESL model type to alter CELLA Listening/Speaking scores. Overall, this research supports the hypothesis that initial language proficiency can significantly alter the effectiveness of a bilingual ESL model. Recommendations for future research in this area include longitudinal studies using a similar hierarchical regression design with moderators in order to contextualize positive student outcomes.

As Latino English language learners (ELL) flood national classrooms their non-Latino, English-speaking teachers are faced with meeting the academic needs of limited English proficient students who hail from cultures unlike their own. This study investigated actions taken by teams of non-Latino, English-speaking educators of Latino (ELL) in order to be effective teachers of this minority population. Two premises prompted the search for what enabled non-Latino English speakers to be effective teachers of this minority population. The supposition was that the non-Latino teacher of ELLs must have: (a) familiarity with the language of the minority; and (b) a high affinity for Latino cultures to affect learning. Support for neither premise was found in this research. However, a mediating factor emerged showing that teams who were successful in moving toward instructional effectiveness for their ELLs incorporated other professionals in the building. These additional team members spoke the minority languages and were familiar with the minority cultures. Two avenues of action found through rigorous readings was the focus of this research. Each was found to be beneficial in moving a collaborative team toward instructional effectiveness for their Latino ELLs. The first is for the team embedded within the bounds of a Professional Learning Community (PLC) to team well adhering to the principles of the PLC. The second is to build an environment of trust within the team. Implications for future research could include a comparison of PLC element and trust facet strength in a multicultural setting as opposed to a single minority.

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This study investigates how Korean Parachute Kids perform academically in their schools and what social factors contribute to Korean Parachute Kids' academic performance. Korean children who came to the U.S. for educational purposes without their parental supervision are called `Korean Parachute Kids'. They have several characteristics: most of them come from high SES families, their parents have high expectations of their children and force them to go to the U.S., Korean Parachute Kids are pressured to attend Ivy League colleges, and their parents tend to compensate for their absence with money or presents. Korean Parachute Kids who come to the United States without their parents encounter many problems, both academically and socially. Many Korean Parachute Kids struggle to adjust and face academic failure due to language barriers, cultural differences, and the different curricula in the U.S. This failure occurs even though acquiring an education is the reason for Korean Parachute Kids' stay in the U.S. and is what their parents have invested exorbitant amounts of money. In light of the absence of their parents, many Korean Parachute Kids' behaviors go unchecked, which may, in turn, cause these children to be maladjusted in many aspects of their school lives. Korean parents' high expectation for their children's academic success is regarded as one of the factors that cause their children to misbehave. Research is needed in order to inform Korean parents and Korean and U.S. society about the academic and social implications of early study abroad for Korean children. Guidelines should also be provided in order for Korean parents to discern what the good and bad aspects of early study abroad in the U.S. are for their children. This research will also be beneficial to educators in America in that they will be aware of Korean Parachute Kids' academic and social difficulties in school since the number of Korean Parachute kids who study in the U.S. continues to increase. / Urban Education

Underrepresentation among those identified for gifted programs has been a concern in the field of gifted education for over a century, affecting students of color, students with disabilities, English language learners, and economically disadvantaged students. Universal screening has emerged as a possible strategy to increase referrals of students from underrepresented populations and to produce gifted population demographics more reflective of total student enrollment. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of universal screening measures on the diversity of students found eligible for gifted education services. The study examined the following research questions: 1. What is the relationship between a referral source and the gifted identification of elementary school students? 2. To what extent do universal screening measures influence the diversity of students eligible for gifted education services? This study used existing referral and eligibility data of elementary school students in a medium-sized school district who were administered a universal screening measure during the 2019-2020 school year. Pearson chi-square tests with Yates' continuity correction were used to determine the existence of possible associations between referral source and gifted identification status, and Cramér's V was used as a measure of effect size. Referral rates, accuracy, and effectiveness of referral sources were also computed. Across all demographic groups, universal screeners referred more students than any other referral source, and the highest number of students identified gifted after the full gifted evaluation came from universal screener referrals. Teacher referrals and universal screener referrals produced the most diverse identified gifted results after evaluation. Universal screeners displayed the highest referral rates and were the most accurate and effective referral source across all demographic groups. This study provides the field of gifted education further research on universal screening, and the findings of this study provide educational leaders data to inform practice. Implications for school and district leaders involve multiple stakeholders and address different areas to promote diversity among the gifted student population. The implications center on parent and community engagement, professional learning, best practices in gifted education, and evaluation of gifted identification processes. / Doctor of Education / Historically, students of color, students with disabilities, English language learners, and economically disadvantaged students have been underrepresented in gifted programs. Universal screening has emerged as a potential practice to refer more students from underrepresented populations and consequentially identify a more diverse gifted population, but few studies exist to support adoption of the practice and to justify the financial expense and amount of instructional time devoted to administering the assessments. This study used existing data of elementary school students in a medium-sized school district who were administered a universal screening measure to investigate the influence of universal screening measures on the diversity of students found eligible for gifted education services. Possible associations between referral source and gifted status were determined, and referral rates, accuracy and identification rates, and effectiveness of various referral sources were calculated. Across demographic groups, universal screeners referred more students than any other referral source, and the highest number of students identified gifted after the full gifted evaluation resulted from these referrals. Teacher referrals and universal screener referrals were found to produce the most diverse identified gifted populations after evaluation; universal screeners displayed the highest referral rates and were the most accurate and effective referral source across all demographic groups. This study adds further research on universal screening to the field of gifted education, and the findings of this study provide educational leaders information regarding the effectiveness of universal screening to translate into institutional practice.

Gender interacts with other facets of English Language Learners’ social identity like race and ethnicity to guide their learning experiences, desires, and outcomes; however, much of traditional Teaching English as a Second Language (TESOL) research has focused on how motivation and language learning beliefs differ between male and female English as a Second Language/English as a Foreign Language (ESL/EFL) students with the intent to identify difference, if it exists. English Language Learners who are studying abroad or who have immigrated to the United States have already established a gender identity influenced and created by their experiences in their first language and culture. Yet, immersion in a new culture and acquiring a second language may cause these students to re-evaluate their perceptions of gender roles and influence their choice of language, as previously found by Gordon (2004) and Schmenk (2004). This thesis attempts to break from this tradition of ‘differential tendencies’ research in the creation of two pilot surveys, one of which was tested, that attempt to solicit information on English Language Learner’s perceptions of their own gendered identity and their consciousness of the catalyst for identity change that is learning a second language. In this case, an English pilot survey asked 32 ESL students to evaluate their beliefs about their own perceptions of gender identity, their conscious choice of language utilization, and their perception of their inclusion in American culture; from that survey, a second has been created but not piloted. A conclusion is drawn that incorporates research about the appropriateness of addressing developing gender identity by teachers inside of the classroom.

This mixed-methods study examined teachers' culturally responsive teaching (CRT) self-efficacy beliefs and the relationships among selected academic, demographic, and experiential factors. Guided by theoretical and empirical research on CRT, teacher dispositions, and assessment in teacher education (TE) programs for culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students, this study utilized an extended version of Siwatu's 2007 Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy (CRTSE) Scale to conduct correlational and comparative statistical analyses. Data sources included surveys from 265 participants enrolled in TE classes in the spring 2012 in Texas (one private and one public university). Content analyses were also conducted on participants' descriptions of CRT activities using a priori and inductive coding methods to triangulate and elaborate the explanation of quantitative results. In this population, those with higher CRTSE were typically young (undergraduates), specializing in ESL and bilingual certification coursework, who felt their TE program prepared them well for working with CLD student populations. Regression analyses showed that certain certification areas (ESL, bilingual, elementary, and advanced) and perceptions of better quality in TE program preparation for working with CLD students emerged as significant predictors of increased CRTSE. Those with second language skills were more efficacious in delivering linguistically-responsive instruction, and those professing more experiences with and interest in diverse individuals felt more confident in applying CRT skills. While the younger teacher candidates felt more efficacious, their descriptions of CRT were less sophisticated than those with more teaching experience. Despite much of the literature relating to CRT and minority teachers, ethnicity was not a significant factor in heightened CRTSE. This study informs TE programs for better measuring and supporting teacher candidate CRT development by revising and extending Siwatu's 2007 study in three ways. First, the CRTSE Scale instrument was extended to include items that address greater depth and breadth of the culturally responsive teaching continuum as developed by the researcher, relating particularly to language and literacy development of English language learners. Second, this study involved a more varied and appropriate population, including both pre-service and in-service teachers. Third, specific participant factors were analyzed to see which correlated with higher CRTSE Scale scores.

This dissertation evaluates disparate impact of test-based retention (TBR) policy on historically disadvantaged student groups in the State of Texas, and determines school characteristics that statistically predict retention and may contribute to disparate impact. The research literature on TBR is limited, as most grade retention research precedes the increase in use of TBR policy across the United States. Based on descriptive analysis, there were considerable increases in retention rates for low-income, African American, Latino, and English Language Learner (ELL) children compared to their less-disadvantaged counterparts, after TBR was implemented. Using multiple regression analysis, schools with higher percentages of low-income students, ELL students, beginning teachers, and higher percentages of low-income students in their school district were found to have higher retention rates while schools with higher percentages of White students, White teachers, and Latino teachers were found to have lower retention rates. Additionally, school retention rates were found to vary according to accountability rating. / text

Doctor of Philosophy / Curriculum and Instruction Programs / Linda P. Thurston / This study utilized an ecobehaviorial approach to investigate the relationship between English language learner language use in middle school content area classrooms and instructional grouping configurations. The participants in the study included 28 native Spanish-speaking students who attended urban middle schools. These students were all identified as being English language learners (ELL) in need of English as a second language support services. This study used the Ecobehavioral System for the Complex Recording of Interactional Bilingual Environments (ESCRIBE) software to record data regarding contextual factors and ELL student behavior using 15 second momentary time sampling in mathematics, social studies, science, reading, and language arts classes. The program analyzed this data to determine conditional probabilities of various student behaviors given each contextual factor. The focus contextual factor of this study was instructional grouping configurations: whole class, small group, one-to-one, and individual instruction. The focus student academic responses included academic language production (writing, reading aloud, and talk academic), academic language reception (reading silently, student attention, and other academic), and other non-academic responses. In this study, the participants were most likely to produce academic language during small group and one-to-one instruction. They were least likely to engage in academic talk during whole class and individual instruction. If teachers want to encourage ELL students to produce academic language, they should consider using more small group and one-to-one instructional grouping configurations.

Doctor of Philosophy / Secondary Education / Charles E. Heerman / This study is a follow-up to Al-Fadda's (2004) investigation of middle school teacher's perceptions of the importance of reading methods. The primary research question to be addressed in this study was: What are ELL and LD teachers' perceptions of the importance of specific reading strategies for their respective types of students? To address this question the researcher developed a survey with five demographic questions and 44 reading methods based on the framework of the COBRA model developed by Heerman (2002). The researcher administered the survey to public middle and junior high school ELL and LD teachers from Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas and compared the two groups' perceptions of the importance of several reading strategies. Analysis of the results showed that there was a 60% agreement rate between the two teacher groups (no significant differences) for three of the COBRA goals (background knowledge, comprehension, and study and application) and a 40% difference rate between the two teacher groups (significant differences) for two of the COBRA goals (experiential learning and vocabulary). For the 44 survey items, there was an agreement rate of 82.82%, and a difference rate of 17.18%. The researcher concludes that there were more similarities than differences between ELL teachers' and LD teachers' perceptions of the importance of the surveyed reading methods, however, there were also real differences. The researcher found justification for the belief that ELL and LD teachers should be considered specialist teachers when it comes to rating the relative importance of reading methods. ELL teachers appear to be inclined to use reading methods related to language, experience, and vocabulary methods. The results also reveal that LD teachers appear to be inclined to use reading methods related to intervention strategies with conferencing, coaching, compensatory methods, specific skills development and memory processes. In addition, the researcher noted a large number of methods with small mean differences, showing the certain levels of agreement between the two teacher groups. In terms of the five teacher variables, percentage of ELL students, percentage of low-income students and school enrollment proved to be the least active variables but the teacher variables of teachers' education levels and teachers' experience levels were more active.