As environmental considerations start playing a major role in consumers’ choices, aluminium recycling becomes an increasingly important topic: indeed, remelting aluminium requires about 5 to 10 % of the energy used for primary production (Quinkert et al., 2001). However, scrap from wrought alloys is more and more used by refiners to produce secondary foundry alloys, which increases the share of primary aluminium in extrusion billets. Besides, a significant fraction of scrap is nowadays leaving Europe to developping countries, limiting the future potential for urban mining in the developed world.Therefore, the W2W project is a pilot case to test in France the implementation of a different end of life management strategy, whose objective is to reuse building joinery scrap to make new extruded products. For this project to be successful, pre-sorting at the beginning of the collection process is paramount: otherwise, separating high quality wrought aluminium alloys from mixed scrap becomes a challenge.The cycle of extruded aluminium in buildings and the current scrap availability in France have been studied using Material Flow Analysis (MFA). To build the model, data have been collected from Hydro internal sources and site visits. The scrap availability and the in-use stocks of extruded aluminium in buildings have been assessed using dynamic stock models based on historic production figures and assumptions on the average lifetime of products. Scenarios on the future production have been studied to estimate the future evolution of these figures.The models predict yearly outputs of post-consumer scrap from aluminium joineries of about 30kt/year, among which 10 kt/year should be reusable for the production of new billets. These numbers have been examined using the tools of sensitivity and uncertainty analysis. Finally, the critical topics for a successful implantation of the W2W project are logistic issues, economic and technological feasibility and the consequences on the different stakeholders.

The aim of this study was to explore the spatial variation in household greenhouse emissions from local transportation in Trondheim, the reasons for this variation, and explore scenarios of what bearing these variations might have on greenhouse gas emissions in the future. Data from a national travel survey was used together with modal emissions coefficients to model the average emissions per capita for 46 geographic zones in Trondheim. Linear regression was used to explain the variation in average emissions using a number of explanatory variables identified from the literature. The regression models explained around 75–80 per cent of the spatial variation in average emissions (0.75 ≤ adj r2 ≤ 0.79), with centre distance explaining the majority of variation. Using a regression function containing centre distance and access to public transport as explanatory variables, five scenarios were constructed for emissions in 2030, which suggest that centralisation of new residential building developments and improvement in the public transport network could limit the growth in annual greenhouse gas emissions to approximately 10 per cent in the presence of approximately 30 per cent population growth.

Petroleum products are an important component of today’s societal energy needs. Petroleum powers everything from the vehicles people rely on, to the ships that carry goods around the world, to the heating of homes in colder climates. The petroleum process chain is complex and the environmental impacts within the process chain are not always well understood. A deeper understanding of where emissions come from along the process chain will help policy makers in the path towards a less carbon intensive society. One of the core processes of the petroleum process chain is refining. Petroleum refining is a complicated process which can have varying crude inputs and varying fuel outputs depending upon the refinery make-up, the crude blend and the market conditions at the time of production. The goal of this paper is to introduce a lifecycle analysis on the UK petroleum refining sector. Where emissions occur along the process chain and which fuels cause the most pollution on a per unit basis will be reported and discussed using lifecycle analysis framework. The refining process is difficult to maneuver around and it can be difficult to discern which processes create which products. The analysis is broadened to understand the refining emissions associated with different fuel types at both a process and country level. The results can be relevant for environmental policy and decision makers. The original intent of this paper was to include gas processing. After discussion between advisor and student, the gas processing was not included after mutual agreement.

Background and contextGeneral and far reaching scenarios of possible futures for humanity's social metabolism have been put forth, outlining strikingly contrasting potential environmental prospects. Lifecycle assessment (LCA) and environmentally extended input-output (EEIO) —the dominant methodologies for environmental assessment of production and consumption activities— have been little used to analyse specific activities within these possible futures.Most LCAs and EEIOs are attributional and retrospective; they use past data with a central tendency approach to determine the impact of activities that are already embedded within a production-consumption system. On the other hand, so-called prospective-consequential LCAs analyse perturbations to a system, e.g. the introduction of new technologies or a change in consumption levels, and are therefore targeted at guiding decisions in the present and near-future. For large scale perturbations or more long-term decisions into the future, however, the consequential approach has been criticised as either losing transparency through complex modelling or relying overly much on ceteris paribus assumptions. It has recently been proposed that a prospective attributional approach to lifecycle studies could fill this void. Such an approach involves estimating the environmental impacts that can be attributed to the lifecycle of a future good or service embedded within exogenously defined scenarios of the future economy. Little has been done in this direction so far.Already in retrospective studies, the separate use of process-based LCA and EEIO has been criticised as leading to either truncated or heavily aggregated assessments. The advantages of using hybridizations of these two techniques seems even greater for prospective attributional analyses, considering how the EEIO framework is a robust vehicle for future economic scenarios. There is thus a need for further development in the direction of prospective attributional hybrid EEIO-LCAs.

Landbrukssektoren har et betydelig miljømessig fotavtrykk, som forventes å øke ettersom verdens befolkning fortsetter å vokse. Verdenssamfunnet har derfor insentiver til å søke etter mer miljøvennlige produksjonsmetoder. Det er også den norske regjeringens mål å minske belastningen fra jordbrukssektoren innen 2020. Siden konsekvensene av jordbruket avhenger av klimatiske og topografiske forhold, samt tradisjoner og politiske insentiver, vil større kunnskap om miljøbelastning knyttet spesifikt til norske forhold være viktig. Denne studien fokuserer på miljøbelastningen av bygg, havre og hvete produksjon i Norge. Ved å bruke en livsløpstilnærming, evalueres miljøbelastningen fra kornproduksjon ved 94 gårder i Norge. Ved å ha en bred system-grense, som omfatter gårdsaktiviteter og innsatsfaktorer som maskiner, kunstgjødsel og pesticider, samt utslipp forbundet med humus mineralisering, ønsker denne studien å gi et grunnlag for å kunne vurdere gjennomsnittlige miljøkonsekvenser forbundet med produksjon av 1 kg korn, samt å vurdere mulig variasjon i belastning mellom regioner og arter.Resultatene viste at utslipp fra åkeren bidro sterkt til miljøkonsekvensene for alle kategorier evaluert, unntatt for toksisitet. Det er derfor av interesse å evaluere mulige tiltak for å minske disse utslippene. Dette gjelder særlig for N$_2$O utslipp assosiert med mineralisering, da disse utslippene var den viktigste stressoren som bidro til klimaendringer. Utslipp fra åkeren var også den viktigste kilden til geografisk variasjon i miljøbelastningen. Resultatene indikerer også at høsthvete var den kornarten som oftest hadde lavest miljøbelastning, per kg produsert. Dette kan i stor grad forklares ved ved at denne arten hadde et høyt utbytte per hektar. Dette viser viktigheten av jordbrukspraksis som optimaliserer utbyttet for å senke miljøbelastningen, per kg produsert.

The overall approach to this thesis would be to start off by making a simple system (with the system boundaries) for steel and aluminium in an average car. The purpose of this would be to find out how one material can be used to substitute the other. The next step would involve looking into the historical stocks of steel and aluminium in cars and predict how they will be in the future. This will be done using dynamic MFA. It will be a global study of cars with a high focus on aluminium.The study will also look into the energy consumption and emissions (focusing on the climate change potential from cars). Historical and future emission scenarios will be made. Different scenarios for climate change mitigation will be tested, including light-weighting, a shift to electrical cars (Blue Map Scenario) and many other steel and aluminium related scenarios. The scenarios would be discussed and compared to results from LCA to show how the results are varying.

An integrated MFA (Material Flow Analyse) model was developed for Russia, based on the year 2009. Integration was done between MFA, energy and greenhouse gas (GHG).Technologies in all production related processes of aluminium cycle were analyzed. Energy consumption and emissions were calculated throughout the aluminium cycle. This technology information and calculations were used in my scenarios for possible reduction of emissions.After the agreement with my supervisor the historical in-use stock was not done. Assumption here is that demand will increase.A sensitivity analyze was not conducted due the fact that that type of analyze can not be used for large changes in the system.If all scenarios are implemented then the decrease of total GHG emissions in aluminium production in Russia will equal to 22.3% and decrease in the total energy consumption will equal to 38,4%.

In the metallurgical industry and in refineries and process industries, there is significant amount of waste heat, it is a challenged field to do the research for producing electricity from the energy of waste heat. Traditionallay, Organic Rankine Cycle(ORC)is used for generating electricity from low temperature heat source. Recently researchers are focusing on the supercritical Rankine cycle which uses CO2 as working fluid for which is more environmental friendly working fluid, possilbe reduced size and better utilization of lower temperature heat source.Currently this technology is under development and there is no manufacturing of this technology that can be observed. In this Master's thesis, the overall environmental impacts caused by the CO2 supercritical cycle will be evaluated:1. What are technologies available for producing electricity from low temperature heat?2. What is the electricity that can be generated from a given amount of heat and what type of equipment is needed for this?3. What are the environmental and resource impacts of this type of equipment, based on analyses of similar types of equipment?4. what is the environmental benefit from energy generation comparing with other fossil and renewable electricity production? 5. A brief economic analysis cosidering the waste heat electricity generation

Eco-Lighthouse (Miljøfyrtårn) is a Norwegian environmental certification scheme adminis-trated by the Eco-Lighthouse Foundation (Stiftelsen Miljøfyrtårn). In connection with the release of ISO 26000 – Guidance on social responsibility, the Eco-Lighthouse Foundation is considering the possibility of integrating more social responsibility into the certification scheme. The Eco-Lighthouse scheme consists of 72 sets of requirements, as per April 16, 2010. The first set of requirements – Requirements for all branches (Krav til alle bransjer) – applies to all organisations regardless of activity. The remaining 71 sets of requirements consist of branch specific requirements. For an organisation to get an Eco-Lighthouse certification it needs to fulfil Requirements for all branches as well as at least one set of branch specific requirements.The aim of this study is to investigate to what extent the content of ISO 26000 can be found in the branch requirements of the Eco-Lighthouse scheme. Due to the time limitation of the study only three sets of requirements are investigated; Requirement for all branches and branch specific requirements for Office activities and Main offices.The method chosen for investigation is a mixture of three different analysis methods. Docu-ment analysis to examine the content of ISO 26000 and identify criteria that can be compared with Eco-Lighthouse requirements, thematic analysis is used to link Eco-Lighthouse require-ments to ISO 26000 criteria, and gap analysis is used to highlight the differences between the two standards.ISO 26000 is organised in seven core subjects; Organisational governance, Human rights, Labour practices, The environment, Fair operating practices, Consumer issues, and Commu-nity involvement and development. The core subjects are subdivided into issues, except in the case of Organisational governance. The Eco-Lighthouse requirements investigated in this study can mainly be found in three core subjects; Organisational governance, The environ-ment, and Labour practices. Within the core subject The environment, Eco-Lighthouse score highest in the issues: Prevention of pollution and Sustainable resource use. Within Labour practices, an especially high score is found in Health and safety at work since many of the requirements are based on Norwegian laws and regulations.The main focus of the Eco-Lighthouse scheme is on environmental issues relating to internal processes of the organisation. That is management, working environment for the employees, purchasing and material use, energy consumption, transportation, and emission and waste management. There is also some focus on upstream suppliers in the value chain but nothing concerning the downstream end of the value chain. There are many environmental impacts connected with the use phase and end-of-life phase of a product. This corresponds to the ISO 26000 core subject of consumer issues.The result of the analysis was presented and discussed together with representatives of Fokus Bank, who were participating in the development of the branch requirements for main offices. In their opinion it is important to focus on the whole value chain and therefore they would like to see requirements which ensure that companies take responsibility for their products and services even after they have left the company, i.e. when used by costumers and finally dis-carded. However, it is also important that the implementation of those requirements focuses on essentials. If the cost of implementing actions to meet the requirements is too high in rela-tion to the environmental and societal benefits, companies might as well refrain from certify-ing themselves.As a provider of an environmental certification scheme, the Eco-Lighthouse Foundation is recommended to extend the scheme to include producer responsibility for products and ser-vices provided by the certified organisations. The Eco-Lighthouse Foundation is also recom-mended to clearly define how far social responsibility reaches for an environmental certifica-tion scheme. Today the Eco-Lighthouse scheme includes requirements concerning working conditions for employees, which are not considered an environmental issue in ISO 26000. A possible solution would be to develop a new scheme concerning social responsibility. This would be especially beneficial if the Eco-Lighthouse Foundation decides to extend their certi-fication service further into non-environmental issues.

Much of the current research into the sustainability of the fisheries and aquaculture industry has focused on achieving continued growth. The report “Value creation from productive oceans,” makes annual growth predictions of 4% for aquaculture and 7% for the marine ingredients sector from 2010 to 2050. The Norwegian government incorporated these growth rates into a political vision presented to parliament as Meld.St.22 “the world’s foremost seafood nation.” Among many ambitions presented in Meld.St.22, three were chosen as being particularly relevant to industry ecology: import reliance, utilization of by-products and sustainable growth. These ambitions were tested along with the 4 and 7% growth rates from the “Value creation from productive oceans,” report using the industrial ecology methodology of material / substance flow analysis. The MFA/SFA model of the fisheries and aquaculture system used a multi-layered approach with a product weight layer as the base and EPA + DHA as the substance layer. Results for import reliance suggest that Norway is 88% reliant on imports (product weight) for aquaculture and 55% for marine ingredients (EPA + DHA). The model estimated that imported Peruvian Anchoveta represented approximately 50% of the EPA + DHA in Norwegian aquaculture feed and 55% for marine ingredients in 2012. By-product utilization was found to be nearly 100% for the aquaculture and pelagic sectors, 34% for whitefish species and nearly zero for macroalgae and marine mammals. The overall by-product utilization rate for Norway, including all Norwegian landed marine fish, zooplankton, macroalgae and marine mammals was 62% for product weight. Sustainability was assessed from an industry, consumer and general environmental perspective. Sustainability from an industry perspective was evaluated using a demand and supply forecast for EPA + DHA. Growth rates of 4% for aquaculture and 7% for marine ingredients were used to model the future supply and demand relative to the system calculated values in the base year (2012). Results suggest a shortage of EPA + DHA within two years and a 45% deficit in demand by 2020. The future EPA + DHA shortage was independently confirmed by a study performed by EWOS using similar parameters and assumptions. The whole fish FIFO for fish oil was calculated to be 1,3 kg of whole forage fish required for 1 kg of whole salmon. The efficiency of seafood deliverables indicator (ESD) was created to add an element of efficiency to the sustainability of seafood from a consumer perspective. The aquaculture industry was found to require 3,22 kg of EPA + DHA per kg of EPA + DHA delivered to consumers as seafood, while the wild fishery sector required 1,76 / kg. The overall findings suggest that EPA & DHA are critical nutrients for: Fish health, human health, industry growth and consumer preferences. The challenge posed by the worsening shortage of EPA & DHA will affect the sustainability of the industry and dialogue concerning realistic growth prospects is suggested.