During the last decade, climate change has prolonged droughts and increased rainfall intensity, which has resulted in an increase in the number of flash floods and tropical storms. These events are affecting Costa Rica’s agriculture sector and are impacting the country’s food security. The main objective of this study was to evaluate farmers' local knowledge and perceptions about climate change and determine the impacts of the payment for environmental services (PES) programme on assisting farmers to integrate information and use innovative technologies to adapt to climate change. Research indicates that although climate change is affecting Costa Rican agriculture, there are adaptation strategies to help alleviate the negative impacts. Farmers in two geographical areas were interviewed to evaluate their integration of climate change information into land management practices. The two areas were Esparza, in the northern part of the province of Puntarenas, and Durika, in southern Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Farmers interviewed in Esparza were chosen based on their involvement in a PES project developed by Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigacíón y Enseñanza (CATIE). Farmers in Durika were chosen because they practice sustainable agricultural techniques that more formally integrate climate change information. Results showed that the PES project was a successful approach to encourage farmers to adapt to climate change. Farmers in Durika and Esparza mentioned the importance of financial incentives combined with improved knowledge and understanding of climate change to encourage adaptation. Important adaptation strategies implemented in Esparza included the use of agroforestry, Brachiaria spp. grasses, water conservation and protection, and supplements. Based on the success of CATIE’s project combined with comments made from farmers in Durika, recommendations are made to improve this project and extend information into the rest of the country.

The purpose of this study is to assess whether the subnational water agreements that apply to the Great Lakes-St Lawrence River watershed are consistent with international norms and principles as articulated at United Nations conferences in Dublin, Ireland (1992) and Bonn, Germany (2001) and to establish the significance of these findings in the context of Ontario’s role in water management. The concepts of complex governance, decentralisation, internationalisation, norms, regimes and soft law contribute the theoretical bases, while a methodological approach of qualitative research, carried out using content analysis and a literature review, is utilised. The content analysis reveals that subnational policies for water management in the GLSLR watershed, as articulated in the Great Lakes Charter, the Great Lakes Charter Annex and the Great Lakes-St Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement, are consistent with international norms in many regards, with nearly identical language found in some areas, such as conservation and restoration of water resources and basin-level management. However, in the subnational agreements, there is a clear avoidance of some subjects closely tied to international norms, such as the unique roles and responsibilities of women, the urgent need for action, and the importance of indigenous knowledge. Furthermore, comparison among the three GLSLR water policies, which were developed over a twenty-year period, reveals that public participation became less prominent over time while this norm was strengthened at the international level. The roles and responsibilities of the federal government are discussed and it is proposed that, in the context of Canada-Ontario shared jurisdiction, the national government must establish national standards and policies. Ultimately, the inconsistencies between subnational GLSLR water policies and international norms are less significant than the notable consistencies, which are more remarkable given the weaknesses of the federal government’s role in water policy.

Canadian societies have developed a paradoxical relationship with change, where we commend “bold and visionary” leaders and adventurers, yet staunchly resist major change in our own lives. Nonetheless, instances of extensive and pervasive societal change inevitably occur. A notable example of current change is sustainable housing, now appearing in various forms throughout a diverse cross-section of society. This movement is in a period of growth and so there is still much to learn about how concepts of sustainability will take hold, and in terms of understanding who are effecting the changes we are starting to experience. Significantly, housing represents a sector that is directly linked to physical health, happiness, the economy and sustainability. Innovation has been the flash point for progress since the dawn of time. Advancement in thinking moves like a relay hurdler, taking even measured logical steps forward until periodically there is a leap, a movement up and over an obstacle into a new zone before the baton is passed to the next runner. These innovators present a new direction of thought and action, and challenge established procedures and routines. The aim of this thesis is to identify and understand influential sustainable housing innovators in order to determine whether it is possible to support them deliberately. The intended use of the results is to determine practical guidelines for sustainable housing innovators and organizations in hopes of improving their influence in the conventional housing arena. A varied and extensive literature review identifies key characteristics of societal leaders and innovators. Case studies, from North America and the Region of Waterloo focusing on the profiles of innovators from the sustainable housing sector are considered in the context of those characteristics. Primary data collection consisted of interviews and personal observations of several sustainable housing groups. Six key characteristics were found in influential sustainable housing innovators. Four were highlighted in the literature search (i.e. possessing charisma, a goal oriented personality and environmental ethic, and a willingness to share knowledge). Two more were derived from the primary data collection (i.e. community awareness and exceptionally effective collaborators and facilitators an ability to be an effective collaborator/facilitator). Results reveal that sustainable housing innovation may be integrated more effectively into mainstream practice in two ways: one, through education and marketing to reduce resistance from fear of the unknown and two, with the introduction of an intermediary moderator between innovators and official city or government decision makers. This study concludes that there are common key characteristics among influential sustainable housing innovators. Understanding those characteristics that identify such innovative leaders is an important step toward mainstream acceptance of sustainable housing.

Eco-tourism continues to experience fast growth, as the desire for more sustainable tourism amongst tourists increases and as economic situations in developing countries demand new avenues for development. In many Caribbean and other developing countries, tourism serves as a promising alternative for development in the face of struggling primary industries and is identified as a possible means through which sustainable development can be achieved. However, not many Caribbean islands are developing and benefiting from an eco-tourism defined as tourism which demands a high level of human responsibility involving “active contribution towards conservation and/or the improvement of host community welfare” (Stone, 2002:16). The Caribbean island of Dominica will benefit greatly from an assessment of its present approach to eco-tourism development and recommendations for realizing more positive contributions to sustainability. The case study of Dominica was used, together with information from a sustainability and sustainable tourism literature review, to (1) develop a comprehensive eco-tourism sustainability framework, and (2) test its application by exploring the current practice of eco-tourism on the island. The literature review revealed the current trends and debates surrounding sustainability and sustainable tourism. This was used to create an initial framework for sustainable tourism, which was subsequently elaborated to reflect the island’s situation. Key informant interviews from the public and private sectors ensured varied perspectives, which were corroborated by participant observations and other secondary research to highlight key issues affecting tourism on the island. This research has revealed that early attempts at conservation and sustainability by the Forestry Division, though not driven by tourism, contributed to preservation of the physical attractions on the island. The major factors affecting the potential for sustainable eco-tourism in Dominica were identified as the geo-physical setting, political/economic motivations, trade agreements, culture, social capital, attitudes, behaviour, habits and customs, environmental considerations, public awareness, outreach, human resource development, and education, site development, and external assistance/ collaboration for research. Continued growth and development of tourism are hindered by limited resources (financial, physical, and human), insufficient collaboration between and among private and public sectors, weak law and enforcement, poor physical planning, conflicting Government priorities, the rugged topography, the dilemma of needing to increase number of visitors while also protecting the environment, the challenge of partitioning the resources between traditional and recreational users while maintaining sustainable use of resources, climate change, changes in the world economy, and the intrinsic vulnerability of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). In light of the myriad of challenges to sustainable eco-tourism development and key considerations from the eco-tourism sustainability framework, the recommendations are focused on addressing the most significant challenges, by suggesting an action plan geared towards improving solid waste management planning and disaster management planning; developing a national stewardship plan to build awareness about environmental protection, conservation and responsibility; and a literacy training programme for tourism service providers who may be illiterate. The eco-tourism sustainability framework and recommendations emerging from the test of its application can guide planning and management within this field and improve the capacity for eco-tourism to make more positive contributions to sustainability on the island of Dominica and more generally, throughout other Small Island Developing States (SIDS).

Monitoring successful urban stream restorations can provide guidance for best practices for restoration design. My case study was located at Critter Creek, a tributary to the Grand River, in northeast Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, where due to high flow and tight meanders, six constructed offline ponds have become connected to the main stream and are now online ponds. This project aimed to evaluate how these online (formerly offline) ponds are affecting the restoration of the stream. The majority of research on this topic has concentrated on ponds specifically constructed for stormwater management or on urban restored streams without ponds. In many restoration plans, offline ponds are proposed to compensate for cut-fill balances and/or for habitat diversity. The relationship of these offline ponds to the function and ecology of the channel has not often been assessed. Benthic macroinvertebrates were used as indicators of restoration as a proxy for water quality. Using a Surber sampler, samples were collected in the reaches of the stream upstream of the inlet and downstream of the outlet of each pond. Comparative samples were taken from waterbodies that provided a restored stream without offline ponds and a reference stream. In the laboratory, all benthic macroinvertebrates were identified to the Family level. Ecology-based metrics (EPT, functional feeding groups, etc.) and an index (Hilsenhoff FBI) were used to characterize the assemblages. The Percent Model Affinity (PMA) Method was used to determine the impairment of the streams and Mann-Whitney tests were conducted to determine if differences existed between the samples taken close to the ponds and those not close to the ponds. Those tests were also conducted to determine differences between Critter Creek and the reference and other restored stream. PMA results from monitoring from previous years indicated that Critter Creek was an impaired stream, and this research shows that the stream is still impaired with PMA values less than 33.23% for 83 of 89 samples. Mann-Whitney tests showed that the location in Critter Creek, whether it be adjacent to an online pond or not, does not have an effect on the benthic assemblages. They also indicate that the composition of the benthic assemblages in Critter Creek has not reached the same stage as those in Laurel Creek, the reference stream, or Clair Creek, the other restored stream. While the habitat and functional requirements of organisms between all three streams is similar, the water quality present in Critter Creek is much lower than in the other two streams. Further monitoring could be completed to determine the trajectory of the benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages in this restoration. However, given that monitoring for the past 10 years has shown that the ecosystem integrity of Critter Creek is not improving, it is advised that action be taken now to improve the stream restoration. The concepts of urban ecology were addressed in this study and a wider-scope monitoring program could be completed to determine the impact of urbanization on the restoration of Critter Creek.

Soil salinity is a serious environmental stress threatening productivity of major crops worldwide. Among the various biotic and abiotic strategies that exist, transgenic technologies provide a promising avenue to reduce yield losses in crops under saline environments. Recently, transgenic technology involving the TMT gene encoding thiol methyltransferase enzyme has been suggested as an effective solution for engineering a chloride detoxification capability into a high value crops to improve tolerance against chloride ion toxicity under saline environments. This proposed mechanism, however, results in the emission of methyl chloride (CH3Cl) from plants, which has deleterious effects on stratospheric ozone. This study was performed to examine the relationship between salt tolerance and chloride volatilizing capacity of transgenic plants containing TMT gene as well as to explore the possibility of generating transgenic rice crop containing TMT gene for salinity tolerance. To achieve these objectives, transgenic tobacco plants containing TMT gene were grown in comparison with wild type tobacco plants under three levels of sodium chloride (NaCl) salinity (0, 100 and 200 mM), three levels of soil water content (40%, 60% and 80% of the field capacity) and their tolerance to NaCl and water stress was studied. Plant growth parameters recorded included plant height, number of leaves, leaf area, stem dry weight, leaf dry weight, root dry weight, plant dry biomass and root/shoot ratio. Similarly, both types of plants were exposed to five levels of NaCl concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 mM) and three levels of soil water content (40%, 60% and 80% of the field capacity), and the quantity of CH3Cl emitted was recorded. Significant decrease in plants growth parameters of both types of plants were recorded upon exposure to salinity and water stress. Under 100 mM NaCl, however, transgenic plants showed better tolerance to salinity by suffering less reduction in growth parameters compared to wild type plants. Under 200 mM NaCl, growth of both types of plants was completely inhibited. The interactive effects of salinity and water stress were more pronounced in wild type plants than in transgenic plants. Results also showed that all engineered plants acquired an ability to efficiently transform chloride ion to CH3Cl, and the rate of such transformation was higher under greater NaCl and soil water content compared to lower NaCl concentrations and soil water content. In order to explore the possibility of generating a transgenic food crop using TMT gene, a hypothetical transgenic rice crop was grown over 27 million hectares of the saline coastal areas of south and southeast Asia and the possible emission of CH3Cl from such ecosystem was inferred based on the CH3Cl emission data obtained from transgenic tobacco plants. The estimates showed that the possible CH3Cl emission from such ecosystem would be 219.21 Gg which is equivalent to 5.36 % of the global atmospheric emissions of CH3Cl.

Interest in local food has increased during recent years; however, the necessary infrastructure is not yet in place for farmers to fully access local markets. While consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the benefits of buying local food, farmers and producers still face many barriers to success in this market. Despite confirmed public desire and growing enthusiasm for local foods, farmers in Perth County continue to face barriers to fully benefitting from this growing market. This research has been conducted as an investigation of one aspect of sustainable communities - the potential contributions of a more local food system in the Perth County community. Using a qualitative methodological approach, this case study research examined Perth County’s food system, barriers facing producers, the potential contributions of a distribution system and culinary tourism to a healthy food system, and the overall sustainable development of a community. Key informants included farmers and producers, and local distribution companies. A vibrant local food system can make significant contributions to the sustainability of communities and, thus, should continue to be pursued within Perth County. Interviews with 18 area producers discovered that a majority found distribution to be a significant barrier to success. This research examined the potential for a local food distribution system that serves as a mechanism for area farmers to increase the consumption of local food and strengthen culinary tourism in the region Culinary tourism is the fastest growing sector of the tourism industry and can make significant contributions to strengthening a local food system. Initiatives already underway to establish Perth County as a culinary and agri-tourism destination will contribute to and provide incentives for developing a stronger local food system in the region. Considerations of sustainable development must be integral to this food systems work and, therefore, the entire realm of social, economic, and environmental impacts of Perth County agriculture must be considered. Perth County has a relatively healthy food system, yet clearly possesses the potential to create a much more localized one. Based on the findings from this study, it is recommended that a feasibility study on the most appropriate distribution model to serve Perth County producers be undertaken.

Despite enough food production to feed everyone on the planet, there are 850 million people around the world who are food insecure. This includes people in developing and industrialized countries. Food insecurity may not be just “not having enough amounts of food” but “not having food that is appropriate according to culture and religion”. The global agri-food system has restricted access to food and resulted in environmental damage by displacing family farming, and leading to the establishment of industrial monocultures. Canada, being a multicultural society, has immigrants from around the world with different ethno-cultural backgrounds and religions. This study takes a different perspective on food insecurity by linking food to culture and religion and the food system. The study has devised criteria based on sustainable food security criteria developed by Lima (2008). The criteria include physical and economic access to food, religious and cultural adequacy of food and the food system’s environmental and social effects. The criteria were applied to the case study of Waterloo Region by examining existing policies and initiatives to address food insecurity in the Region. The case study analysis explores barriers and opportunities to foster sustainable food security for immigrants in Waterloo Region. The case study includes an embedded case study of South Asian Muslim community of immigrants in Cambridge, Waterloo Region. The analysis of the case study findings reveals that in most cases the current food system of Waterloo Region is largely industrial and contains major gaps in fulfilling the criteria of access, sustainability, social justice, and cultural and spiritual attitudes. This food system only partially meets or even fails to meet the criteria. As evidenced in the case study, current governance arrangements to address the issue of food insecurity result in exclusion of immigrant populations. The issue goes beyond food and emerges in other planning decisions like the allocation of public spaces. Finally, this study recommends broader multicultural policy at the regional government level to include the issues of immigrants.

Conservation biologists often use biological indicators to measure and monitor changes in biological diversity. This study examines butterflies as indicators using a gradient-based study approach. The urban gradient was characterized by Environmentally Sensitive Policy Areas (ESPAs), urban parks, golf courses, residential areas, and industrial areas. This thesis has been divided into two separate chapters. Chapter 1 summarizes an extensive review of existing data on butterfly presence/absence in the Region of Waterloo to determine what species are relatively uncommon or rare in the Region and examine how butterfly presence/absence has changed over the last 80 year. Each butterfly species that occurs in the region was assigned a regional status which resulted in the identification of 46 uncommon and rare species. Chapter 2 examines changes in butterfly abundance and diversity along a gradient of urbanization to determine how different land uses are potential affecting butterfly communities. Transects, 500 meters in length, were established at fifteen sites, each of which represented a land use within the urban gradient identified. Each transect was walked once a week for a total of 28 weeks over two years (2009 and 2010). Overall butterfly richness was observed to be highest within ESPAs, followed by urban parks and industrial areas and lowest within golf courses and residential areas. Shannon diversity scores were compared using a Kruskal Wallis test and indicated that species richness and evenness was significantly different between ESPAs and urban parks and compared to the remaining land uses, while species richness and evenness was not significantly different among residential areas, golf courses, and industrial areas in either 2009 or 2010. Significant differences in species richness and evenness was observed across the same land uses in 2009 and 2010 for all types except residential areas. Overall butterfly abundance was observed to be highest in industrial areas and lowest within golf courses and residential areas, a trend which was observed in both 2009 and 2010. Abundance was observed to be heavily influenced by counts of two non native species- the cabbage white (Pieris rapae) and European Skipper (Thymelicus lineola). ESPAs were identified as 1) supporting the most diverse butterfly community out of the 5 land uses examined and 2) providing habitat for the highest number of rare and uncommon species, indicating that current regional policies in place for protecting rare species are effective. Through an extensive literature review it was concluded that butterflies are effective indicators in temperate regions within a small geographic area such as the Region of Waterloo. Therefore it is expected that the results of this study indicate how other terrestrial taxonomic groups, which are known to show a similar response to urbanized land uses, may be impacted by urbanization in the Region. It is anticipated that the results of this study may be used to guide urban land use planning as it identifies rare and uncommon butterfly species within the region as well as what land uses need habitat enhancement to support more diverse communities.

Temporal and spatial concentrations of several pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), and endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are predicted in the Grand River watershed using a novel version of the PhATE (Pharmaceutical Assessment and Transport Evaluation) model code, which is adapted to explicitly consider Canadian conditions. Specific PPCPs and EDCs previously measured in the Grand River watershed in Ontario, Canada, are selected as the target compounds for this study. Due to observed seasonal variability in climate, hydrology, and pharmaceutical loadings at the case study location, predicting seasonal concentrations of each chemical is expected to improve simulation results and the PhATE model is modified accordingly. In this regard, required seasonal hydrological parameters (i.e. flow rate and velocity) are estimated based on site data. Furthermore, chemical loss parameters (i.e. in-stream decay, human loss, and removal efficiency of treatment plants) are extracted from the literature and then calibrated to observed seasonal behaviour. Calibration parameters for the case study include in-stream decay, human loss, and removal efficiency of three different types of treatment plants. Simulated concentrations are validated by comparing them with measured data at two previously sampled locations in the Grand River. In general, the PhATE model, when modified to account for seasonal variability, accurately simulates pharmaceutical concentrations in the Grand River. The validated PhATE model is used in a predictive mode to identify streams and stream segments with high potential risk of being exposed to the selected PPCPs and EDCs in the watershed in different seasons. Results suggest that a portion of the Grand River extending from the effluent of Waterloo and Kitchener wastewater treatment plants down to the municipality of Brantford is likely to be at higher risk, relative to other portions of the watershed. Moreover, the potential for PPCP toxicity to aquatic species is assessed using the maximum simulated concentrations for the Grand River watershed. According to regulatory guidelines developed by the European Union (EU), most of PPCPs are predicted to be at concentrations that require further assessment and/or more stringent regulations and restrictions.