Recently, the importance of quantifying the success of stream/river restoration projects has become a priority in restoration. The absence of ecological monitoring of stream restoration has been made very evident, resulting in the questioning of the viability of restoration activities that have taken place, the ecological approaches used and of restoration as a field of study as a whole. Priority has been set towards illustrating what a successfully restored stream should consist of with development of conceptual frameworks. My study builds upon that concept, by drawing a methodological framework that illustrates how successful stream restoration projects should be quantified using a stream restoration monitoring protocol; asking the question whether a stream restoration monitoring protocol can be created and whether it can appropriately quantify the success of restored stream reaches; further, what assessment technique(s) are best suited for monitoring; ecological, geomorphic or a hybrid approach. In Waterloo, Ontario 29 restored test stream reaches were assessed using benthic macroinvertebrates. Benthos community composition was described using Family Richness, Simpson’s Diversity, % EPT, and % Chironomidae. The same reaches were also assessed using a geomorphic assessment technique I designed for this study, which focused on channel stability measures and substrate type as habitat. The methodology was then used to develop information on disturbed (n=7) and natural (n=5) reference reaches in Waterloo. The reference condition approach was used to quantify the relative placement of the restored test streams to reference condition. The ecological assessment technique was best able to quantify the success of a restored reach, by showing linear relationships between benthic metrics in a PCA analysis (0.657). The geomorphic approach, as analyzed by a Non-metric multidimensional scaling test did not consistently evaluate or significantly distinguish between restored reaches and reference conditions, shown by a stress of 25.31. However, a canonical correspondence analysis showed that there are some relationships, although weak, between the ecological approach and geomorphic approach (0.696; p=0.03). This study showed that it is possible to quantify the success or lack of success of restored stream reaches and it is recommended that a hybrid approach be used when monitoring for stream restoration success.

During the last decade, climate change has prolonged droughts and increased rainfall intensity, which has resulted in an increase in the number of flash floods and tropical storms. These events are affecting Costa Rica’s agriculture sector and are impacting the country’s food security. The main objective of this study was to evaluate farmers' local knowledge and perceptions about climate change and determine the impacts of the payment for environmental services (PES) programme on assisting farmers to integrate information and use innovative technologies to adapt to climate change. Research indicates that although climate change is affecting Costa Rican agriculture, there are adaptation strategies to help alleviate the negative impacts. Farmers in two geographical areas were interviewed to evaluate their integration of climate change information into land management practices. The two areas were Esparza, in the northern part of the province of Puntarenas, and Durika, in southern Puntarenas, Costa Rica. Farmers interviewed in Esparza were chosen based on their involvement in a PES project developed by Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigacíón y Enseñanza (CATIE). Farmers in Durika were chosen because they practice sustainable agricultural techniques that more formally integrate climate change information. Results showed that the PES project was a successful approach to encourage farmers to adapt to climate change. Farmers in Durika and Esparza mentioned the importance of financial incentives combined with improved knowledge and understanding of climate change to encourage adaptation. Important adaptation strategies implemented in Esparza included the use of agroforestry, Brachiaria spp. grasses, water conservation and protection, and supplements. Based on the success of CATIE’s project combined with comments made from farmers in Durika, recommendations are made to improve this project and extend information into the rest of the country.

The purpose of this study is to assess whether the subnational water agreements that apply to the Great Lakes-St Lawrence River watershed are consistent with international norms and principles as articulated at United Nations conferences in Dublin, Ireland (1992) and Bonn, Germany (2001) and to establish the significance of these findings in the context of Ontario’s role in water management. The concepts of complex governance, decentralisation, internationalisation, norms, regimes and soft law contribute the theoretical bases, while a methodological approach of qualitative research, carried out using content analysis and a literature review, is utilised. The content analysis reveals that subnational policies for water management in the GLSLR watershed, as articulated in the Great Lakes Charter, the Great Lakes Charter Annex and the Great Lakes-St Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement, are consistent with international norms in many regards, with nearly identical language found in some areas, such as conservation and restoration of water resources and basin-level management. However, in the subnational agreements, there is a clear avoidance of some subjects closely tied to international norms, such as the unique roles and responsibilities of women, the urgent need for action, and the importance of indigenous knowledge. Furthermore, comparison among the three GLSLR water policies, which were developed over a twenty-year period, reveals that public participation became less prominent over time while this norm was strengthened at the international level. The roles and responsibilities of the federal government are discussed and it is proposed that, in the context of Canada-Ontario shared jurisdiction, the national government must establish national standards and policies. Ultimately, the inconsistencies between subnational GLSLR water policies and international norms are less significant than the notable consistencies, which are more remarkable given the weaknesses of the federal government’s role in water policy.

Canadian societies have developed a paradoxical relationship with change, where we commend “bold and visionary” leaders and adventurers, yet staunchly resist major change in our own lives. Nonetheless, instances of extensive and pervasive societal change inevitably occur. A notable example of current change is sustainable housing, now appearing in various forms throughout a diverse cross-section of society. This movement is in a period of growth and so there is still much to learn about how concepts of sustainability will take hold, and in terms of understanding who are effecting the changes we are starting to experience. Significantly, housing represents a sector that is directly linked to physical health, happiness, the economy and sustainability. Innovation has been the flash point for progress since the dawn of time. Advancement in thinking moves like a relay hurdler, taking even measured logical steps forward until periodically there is a leap, a movement up and over an obstacle into a new zone before the baton is passed to the next runner. These innovators present a new direction of thought and action, and challenge established procedures and routines. The aim of this thesis is to identify and understand influential sustainable housing innovators in order to determine whether it is possible to support them deliberately. The intended use of the results is to determine practical guidelines for sustainable housing innovators and organizations in hopes of improving their influence in the conventional housing arena. A varied and extensive literature review identifies key characteristics of societal leaders and innovators. Case studies, from North America and the Region of Waterloo focusing on the profiles of innovators from the sustainable housing sector are considered in the context of those characteristics. Primary data collection consisted of interviews and personal observations of several sustainable housing groups. Six key characteristics were found in influential sustainable housing innovators. Four were highlighted in the literature search (i.e. possessing charisma, a goal oriented personality and environmental ethic, and a willingness to share knowledge). Two more were derived from the primary data collection (i.e. community awareness and exceptionally effective collaborators and facilitators an ability to be an effective collaborator/facilitator). Results reveal that sustainable housing innovation may be integrated more effectively into mainstream practice in two ways: one, through education and marketing to reduce resistance from fear of the unknown and two, with the introduction of an intermediary moderator between innovators and official city or government decision makers. This study concludes that there are common key characteristics among influential sustainable housing innovators. Understanding those characteristics that identify such innovative leaders is an important step toward mainstream acceptance of sustainable housing.

Eco-tourism continues to experience fast growth, as the desire for more sustainable tourism amongst tourists increases and as economic situations in developing countries demand new avenues for development. In many Caribbean and other developing countries, tourism serves as a promising alternative for development in the face of struggling primary industries and is identified as a possible means through which sustainable development can be achieved. However, not many Caribbean islands are developing and benefiting from an eco-tourism defined as tourism which demands a high level of human responsibility involving “active contribution towards conservation and/or the improvement of host community welfare” (Stone, 2002:16). The Caribbean island of Dominica will benefit greatly from an assessment of its present approach to eco-tourism development and recommendations for realizing more positive contributions to sustainability. The case study of Dominica was used, together with information from a sustainability and sustainable tourism literature review, to (1) develop a comprehensive eco-tourism sustainability framework, and (2) test its application by exploring the current practice of eco-tourism on the island. The literature review revealed the current trends and debates surrounding sustainability and sustainable tourism. This was used to create an initial framework for sustainable tourism, which was subsequently elaborated to reflect the island’s situation. Key informant interviews from the public and private sectors ensured varied perspectives, which were corroborated by participant observations and other secondary research to highlight key issues affecting tourism on the island. This research has revealed that early attempts at conservation and sustainability by the Forestry Division, though not driven by tourism, contributed to preservation of the physical attractions on the island. The major factors affecting the potential for sustainable eco-tourism in Dominica were identified as the geo-physical setting, political/economic motivations, trade agreements, culture, social capital, attitudes, behaviour, habits and customs, environmental considerations, public awareness, outreach, human resource development, and education, site development, and external assistance/ collaboration for research. Continued growth and development of tourism are hindered by limited resources (financial, physical, and human), insufficient collaboration between and among private and public sectors, weak law and enforcement, poor physical planning, conflicting Government priorities, the rugged topography, the dilemma of needing to increase number of visitors while also protecting the environment, the challenge of partitioning the resources between traditional and recreational users while maintaining sustainable use of resources, climate change, changes in the world economy, and the intrinsic vulnerability of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). In light of the myriad of challenges to sustainable eco-tourism development and key considerations from the eco-tourism sustainability framework, the recommendations are focused on addressing the most significant challenges, by suggesting an action plan geared towards improving solid waste management planning and disaster management planning; developing a national stewardship plan to build awareness about environmental protection, conservation and responsibility; and a literacy training programme for tourism service providers who may be illiterate. The eco-tourism sustainability framework and recommendations emerging from the test of its application can guide planning and management within this field and improve the capacity for eco-tourism to make more positive contributions to sustainability on the island of Dominica and more generally, throughout other Small Island Developing States (SIDS).

Urbanization, which is ever increasing on a global scale, can negatively affect wildlife and habitat as well as biotic realms including air, soil, and water. One of the impacts of urbanization is urban runoff. A method commonly employed to mitigate runoff is the construction of stormwater management ponds (SWMPs). These ponds have created new habitat for urban wildlife, especially waterfowl such as Canada geese and mallard ducks. In some municipalities, increased numbers and densities of waterfowl near SWMPs are considered a nuisance due to their large numbers, considerable amount of fecal matter and because they may create health hazards. This research specifically examines the influence of species composition and height of vegetation around SWMPs on waterfowl use and whether changes in Escherichia coli counts are attributed to waterfowl use. Ponds were visited 140 times between April 2005 and June 2006. At each site, the number of Canada geese, mallard ducks, and other waterfowl species was recorded. Geese significantly preferred ponds with short vegetation (F = 53.45, p < 0.0001) and ducks exhibited no preference (F= 2.17, p = 0.347). The time (day) that observations were made was a factor indicating that there were temporal variations among seasons; geese were slightly more affected by time (F = 16.08, p < 0.0001) than ducks (F = 11.18, p < 0.001). This was not surprising given that waterfowl generally migrate locally across seasons. This result also supported the hypothesis that geese respond to changes in vegetation height. The influence of time coincides with the development of vegetation between spring and summer. Geese moved to the ponds with short vegetation as the growing season progressed, whereas they tended to avoid ponds with more naturalized vegetation due to the increased height. From a management perspective, municipalities can discourage nuisance geese at SWMPs through the naturalization of ponds and decreasing the level of maintenance via less mowing. There was no significant correlation between waterfowl use of ponds and E. coli counts. The Pearson’s correlation ranged from -0.152 to 0.990, associated p values ranged from 0.07 to 0.981. While further study is required, it appears that waterfowl do not offer any noticeable addition of E. coli to stormwater management ponds beyond what is already in the water column from other sources. Therefore, waterfowl may not present a health threat, at least within the pond itself.

Concerns regarding the persistence, bioaccumulation, long-range transport, and adverse health effects of polybrominated dipheyl ethers (PBDEs) have recently come to light. PBDEs are quickly becoming a ubiquitous pollutant and have been found globally in sediment, aquatic mammals, fish, bird eggs, human milk, serum, and adipose tissue. Due to their persistence and lipophilicity, PBDEs may biomagnify through the food chain and could pose a danger to those who consume these contaminated animals. Many First Nation communities in the James Bay region rely in part on a subsistence diet; therefore, these communities have the potential to carry high levels of PBDEs. Additionally, PBDEs have been shown to be preferentially deposited in the sub-Arctic, making this contaminant of particular interest to the James Bay region of northern Ontario and Quebec, Canada. By analyzing PBDE body burden (plasma), this contaminant was characterized with regards to its latitudinal variation and concentration. The study established a baseline PBDE level in the communities of the James Bay region and determined concentrations in the traditional foods of the First Nation communities located in the Mushkegowuk Territory of sub-Arctic Canada, to examine potential routes of exposure. The PBDE body burden was found to be low in the Mushkegowuk communities when compared to more northern communities in Canada. Similarly, PBDE body burden in the US and southern Canada is higher than those of the James Bay region. The body burdens of the James Bay Cree are similar to Japanese and Swedish levels. Analysis of traditional foods shows relatively elevated levels of PBDEs in certain game species such as whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis), mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos), and moose (Alces alces) compared to other traditional foods from the same area. Data in this thesis can be used for human biomonitoring purposes and the animal data can be combined with consumption data in order to assess the contribution of PBDEs to body burden from a First Nation diet as well as provide guidance when developing safety guidelines for the consumption of traditional foods. While the sub-arctic has been identified as an environmental sink for PBDEs, the levels found in this study indicate that long-range transportation and dietary biomagnification of the contaminant may not be the primary exposure pathway. This may be due to low bioavailability of the contaminant, rapid metabolism, or alternate sources of exposure and should be investigated in future studies.

Increasing globalization of the food system has led to a loss of food sovereignty and security in communities throughout the world. This globalized system has adopted industrial techniques of standardization and specialization as the solution to producing an abundant cheap food supply. Over time this system has become concentrated in the hands of a few transnational corporations that increasingly control every step of production from farm inputs, to distributing and processing. As a result, we have experienced the emergence of a counter movement to the corporate controlled and globally sourced dominant food system we have today. The rise of local food systems in industrialized countries developed to help solve the issues created by the current food system. This study provides insight into the barriers and opportunities to the development of local food systems, as well as the universality of these barriers. To achieve this, a multi-case study was conducted in Nelson, British Columbia; Lethbridge, Alberta; and Waterloo, Ontario. In each of these locations information was consolidated from food 'experts' or key informants, consumers, farmers, and supermarket owners/managers. Research methods included semi-structured interviews, a consumer survey, interpretation of government documents, and study site observation. Results from this study add to the empirical work on local food systems in Canada and offer a multi-stakeholder perspective of the barriers and opportunities to localization efforts. Findings suggest that the barriers to the development of local food systems are largely universal and are supportive of other empirical and theoretical works. Barriers included issues such as federal agricultural policy, health and safety regulations, consolidation of food retailing, and a demand for cheap food. The opportunities for a local food system, although more diverse and different between regions, can all for the most part be universally applied. While many opportunities exist for municipalities to enhance local food in their region, barriers created by government and industry will ultimately limit any notable movement toward a more localized food system without more significant policy changes from above. This study supports the idea that local food systems will require government assistance in order for changes from the grassroots to make significant strides in becoming less dependent on food imports.

This research focuses on recreation impacts and management options for the eastern coast of Georgian Bay, a popular destination for summer tourism. Georgian Bay has a rugged coastline of barren rock islands and wind sept trees - a wilderness setting that attracts cottagers, campers and boaters alike. Franklin Island, close to the Town of Parry Sound, represents a microcosm of recreation management problems on the coast of Georgian Bay, including concerns about the ecological capacity for island recreation, social concerns about impacts, and some ongoing governance and management challenges for Crown Lands. This study uses Franklin Island as the site to assess the types and severity of recreation impacts at five different campsites. Vegetation surveys found that vegetation communities at the campsite scale and slightly beyond the campsite do not appear to be significantly altered or affected by the current intensity and types of recreation use. Since the most visible impacts (e.g., campfires, cut wood, and trampling) found in this study were not at a scale to alter the vegetation patterns and coverage of the area, within the campsite or outside of campsite boundaries, the discussion then distinguishes between various scales and types of impact (ecosystemic, ecological, and aesthetic) to determine whether measured impacts affect broader ecosystem functioning. Overall this study would suggest that these localized impacts are not having a significant impact to the functioning of the Franklin Island ecosystem. However, the mosaic structure of ecosystems in eastern Georgian Bay, with their high level of patchiness and inter-patch diversity, including large areas of barren rock, pose some unique challenges for an ecological assessment of recreation impacts. Some modifications to the sampling approach may assist future assessments of recreation impacts and long-term monitoring. Recreation on Franklin Island poses a challenge for environmental management because, while it is in the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Natural Resources as a formal Conservation Reserve, there are a number of factors that have contributed to a management vacuum, including limited resources for management, monitoring and enforcement by traditional authorities. As a result, governance for Franklin Island has shifted from formal government-led approaches to informal partnerships and community based collaborative approaches. However, it is unclear whether the collaborative governance approach for Franklin Island that undertakes specific management actions (e.g., a volunteer fire ban, latrine construction, site clean-up, etc.) are successfully reducing the potential risks from recreation to Franklin Island's ecosystems. This research concludes with a number of recommendations for managing recreation on Franklin Island and in eastern Georgian Bay.

Recently, the importance of quantifying the success of stream/river restoration projects has become a priority in restoration. The absence of ecological monitoring of stream restoration has been made very evident, resulting in the questioning of the viability of restoration activities that have taken place, the ecological approaches used and of restoration as a field of study as a whole. Priority has been set towards illustrating what a successfully restored stream should consist of with development of conceptual frameworks. My study builds upon that concept, by drawing a methodological framework that illustrates how successful stream restoration projects should be quantified using a stream restoration monitoring protocol; asking the question whether a stream restoration monitoring protocol can be created and whether it can appropriately quantify the success of restored stream reaches; further, what assessment technique(s) are best suited for monitoring; ecological, geomorphic or a hybrid approach. In Waterloo, Ontario 29 restored test stream reaches were assessed using benthic macroinvertebrates. Benthos community composition was described using Family Richness, Simpson’s Diversity, % EPT, and % Chironomidae. The same reaches were also assessed using a geomorphic assessment technique I designed for this study, which focused on channel stability measures and substrate type as habitat. The methodology was then used to develop information on disturbed (n=7) and natural (n=5) reference reaches in Waterloo. The reference condition approach was used to quantify the relative placement of the restored test streams to reference condition. The ecological assessment technique was best able to quantify the success of a restored reach, by showing linear relationships between benthic metrics in a PCA analysis (0.657). The geomorphic approach, as analyzed by a Non-metric multidimensional scaling test did not consistently evaluate or significantly distinguish between restored reaches and reference conditions, shown by a stress of 25.31. However, a canonical correspondence analysis showed that there are some relationships, although weak, between the ecological approach and geomorphic approach (0.696; p=0.03). This study showed that it is possible to quantify the success or lack of success of restored stream reaches and it is recommended that a hybrid approach be used when monitoring for stream restoration success.