Traditionally, high initial capital costs and lengthy payback periods have been identified as the most significant barriers that limit the diffusion of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. In response, the Ontario Government, through the Ontario Power Authority (OPA), introduced the Renewable Energy Standard Offer Program (RESOP) in November, 2006. The RESOP offers owners of solar PV systems with a generation capacity under 10MW a 20 year contract to sell electricity back to the grid at a guaranteed rate of $0.42/kWh. While it is the intent of incentive programs such as the RESOP to begin to lower financial barriers in order to increase the uptake of solar PV systems, there is no guarantee that the level of participation will in fact rise. The "on-the-ground" manner in which consumers interact with such an incentive program ultimately determines its effectiveness. The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the relationship between the RESOP and solar PV system consumers. To act on this purpose, the experiences of current RESOP participants are presented, wherein the factors that are either hindering or promoting utilization of the RESOP and the adoption of solar PV systems are identified. This thesis was conducted in three phases – a literature review, preliminary key informant interviews, and primary RESOP participant interviews – with each phase informing the scope and design of the subsequent stage. First, a literature survey was completed to identify and to understand the potential drivers and barriers to the adoption of a solar PV system from the perspective of a consumer. Second, nine key informant interviews were completed to gain further understanding regarding the specific intricacies of the drivers and barriers in the case of Ontario, as well as the overall adoption system in the province. These interviews were conducted between July and September, 2008. Third, interviews with 24 RESOP participants were conducted; they constitute the primary data set. These interviews were conducted between November and December, 2008. Findings of this thesis suggest that the early adopters of solar PV systems have been motivated by their self-identified sustainability-oriented social attitudes, rather than the lowering of the financial barrier. Only six of 24 respondents noted that they would not have purchased a solar PV system in the absence of the RESOP. For nine of 24 respondents, the catalyst for the purchase of the solar PV systems was not the creation of the RESOP, but instead the presence of a community-based co-operative purchasing group (CBCPG) that had selected a vender and that provided a support service to help the consumer navigate the administrative processes associated with the RESOP. Regarding the functioning of the RESOP, interview respondents reported lengthy periods of time to secure electrical connection, hidden additional fees, and arduous administrative processes. Based on their experiences interacting with Local Distribution Companies, vendors, and the OPA, respondent evaluations of the overall adoption process ranged from extremely positive (some interviewees praised the RESOP for its ease of participation and utility), to extremely negative (other interviewees condemned the RESOP because of its administrative complexity and hidden costs and fees). A key finding from this research is that weaknesses in the administration and promotion of the RESOP have been mitigated by the presence of CBCPGs and third parties aiding consumers in the purchase, installation, administration, and connection of their solar PV system. Recommendations of this thesis include the creation of new and enhancement of existing CBCPGs, a simplification of the required administrative processes, and an increase in the rates of compensation.

In 2009, Ontario’s electricity system is in the midst of redevelopment to be sustainable, competitive and reliable. To advance this goal, conservation and demand management (CDM) is a key part of the plan. For CDM plans to be successful, it is necessary to understand why organizations undertake CDM activities. This thesis presents a case study, from 2001 to 2006, investigating organizations’ motivations, enablers and barriers associated with conservation, efficiency and demand response activities. Participants included general service customers with loads greater than 50 kW in Milton, Ontario (Canada). Interviews with representatives from 17 organizations included industrial, commercial and institutional customers. Observations at Milton Hydro Energy Drill Program events, analyses of participants’ electricity usage data, and investigations of the participants’ public profiles were included in the case study. All participants reported undertaking at least one CDM activity. The primary motivation was financial benefit. Customer satisfaction was also an important motivator for some participants. Adhering to business policies and objectives and environmental benefit were complimentary to these main motivations. The Energy Drill Program, in some cases, led to increased conservation and efficiency by encouraging a focus on internal systems and practices as well as by providing an opportunity for businesses to save on operating costs while benefiting from an associated positive public image. The commercial and industrial participants were interested in CDM activities as long as they fit within their business financial management requirements and/or contributed to their business’s competitiveness through improved image or otherwise. The social and/or environmental benefits were seen as complimentary, yet not enough to drive the activities on their own. Most of the institutional participants emphasized the community contribution as an enabler of their participation in the demand response program, however, two of the four such participants did not appear to participate in the program on a regular basis, based on the program impact reports. This incongruity between reported and actual behaviour in this sector may be an interesting area for further research. The barriers reported were for known opportunities and these included the inadequate and uncertain financial benefits, technological uncertainty, and, particularly for the small to medium sized businesses, the limited capacity to further investigate and pursue opportunities. Future research could investigate each sector and/or CDM activity sub-category independently for more specific insights.

China used to impress the outside world as a country that was focused on its own development with few links to the rest of the globe. However, things have changed and now China is an increasingly important global player. This research uses a case study approach to demonstrate this more recent trend. By looking into the general patterns of urban development and urban tourism in Dalian, a coastal city of northern China, the study documents the efforts that a city in a developing country has made at different stages to link its social and economic development with the global scene, although some of these relationships were imposed by external world powers. Unlike many other Chinese cities which have experienced many planning initiatives, Dalian municipal officials had the foresight to have tourism development included in their urban plans as early as the 1980s, although the real importance of the role of tourism did not materialize until the late 1980s. It has been shown that tourism development of the city has been an integral part of and complementary to the overall urban development strategy. It has helped to strengthen the image of a city whose leaders have been keen to present it as clean, modern, active, and eager to promote itself to the rest of the world. They have striven to do this even though the city is still more influential at the regional rather than the global level. The environmental enhancement has not only upgraded the city’s competitive competence but, along with the construction of numerous tourism facilities, of which conference centres are an example, also embodied the notion put forward in the paper that urban facilities are largely multifunctional and are aimed at and used by clients with multiple purposes. This also implies that tourism is not an end in itself but is one means of facilitating urban development.

Sustainability has become a goal for many recreational tourism businesses. For ski resorts, the goal of sustainability has been driven by a growing understanding of the impacts ski resorts have on the biophysical environment and the host communities in which they reside. In addition, ski resort owners and operators have an inherent self-interest and ethical responsibility as corporate citizens to pursue sustainability. Has a sustainable ski resort, however, been adequately defined at a conceptual level? The current understanding of sustainable ski resorts is limiting because it encourages ski resort owners and operators to address sustainability challenges in a compartmentalized fashion and in isolation of one another. This thesis examines how ski resorts would benefit from taking an integrated systems approach to sustainability—an approach that when applied, can be used to assess the state of sustainability at an organization and can broaden the scope of decision-making at an organization. This approach is missing in an industry where sustainability has historically meant focusing on achieving outcomes in efficiency thus failing to acknowledge the broader socio-ecological footprint of a ski resort. Gibson et al. (2005) argue the journey toward sustainability ought to be guided by a set of requirements based on principles of sustainability. Such principles operate on an integrated systems approach. This thesis uses the Gibson principles as the criteria by which to assess literature that discusses desirable characteristics of businesses and recreation/tourism destinations in sustainability terms. The intention here is to incorporate context specific insights into the Gibson principles such that the Gibson principles are adapted for ski resorts. The sustainable ski resort principles emerge out of this adaptation process and are applied using an exploratory case study. Specifically, the principles are compared against the current conditions of sustainability at Blue Mountain Resort (BMR), located in the Town of Blue Mountains (Ontario), with the goal of assessing the state of sustainability at BMR. The analysis resulted in the identification of five areas where the sustainable ski resort principles advanced the understanding of what constitutes a sustainable ski resort. First, the sustainable ski resort principles clearly require that there be limits on quantitative growth and, as such, ski resorts must strive towards decoupling improvements in quality and service from further growth and consumption. Second, a sustainable ski resort contributes to narrowing the socio-economic gaps within the workplace and the host community while operating within a multigenerational timescale to ensure future generations are fairly represented. Third, a sustainable ski resort reduces its net consumption of materials and resources and invests these savings in areas that are deficient in natural and social capital. Fourth, the sustainable ski resort principles require decision making power to be shared amongst internal and external stakeholders. Fifth, stakeholders must pursue opportunities to arrive at decisions that strengthen the well-being of both human and ecological systems through the integrated application of the sustainable ski resort principles. The analysis of the case study findings reveals that five of the eight sustainable ski resort principles are partially realized as represented by BMR’s demonstrated leadership amongst ski resorts in Ontario in the areas of solid waste reduction, energy efficiency and staff/public education. As evidenced in the case study, the ski resort industry’s responses to its sustainability challenges have largely been handled in isolation using conventional approaches to decision-making that tend to address sustainability challenges as separate entities. This perpetuates the notion that sustainability challenges are detached and therefore detached solutions are proposed or pursued. These approaches fail to recognize the linkages and interdependencies between entities thereby failing to pursue integration—the essence of sustainability as articulated by the sustainable ski resort principles.

Ontario’s Greenbelt is key to the region’s sustainability and plays an important role in stopping urban sprawl, preserving agricultural land and maintaining ecological goods and services. However, there have been concerns expressed in the literature and by non-government organizations that the Greenbelt legislation, on its own, will not ensure the viability of the farming economy in this region, or ensure adequate ecological stewardship. These concerns point to the need for other programs and policies to complement the Greenbelt legislation, and to help ensure that the goals of the Greenbelt are met. This research study assesses the potential of the Alternative Land Use Services Program (ALUS) as a tool for promoting agricultural viability and associated land stewardship in Ontario’s Greenbelt. An Alternative Land Use Services program would pay farmers for the provision of environmental services in the public interest. Using a qualitative methodological approach based on a literature review, a review of government and non-government organization documents and interviews with key stakeholders, this study compares the potential contribution of the ALUS program with that of other reasonable alternatives currently available to promote farmland protection and farm stewardship. The research also provides an analytical framework and a comprehensive set of criteria for selection and design of programs in support of sustainable agriculture in the Greenbelt. The primary research findings indicate that an ALUS program in the Greenbelt, established as a stand-alone regional project or as part of a provincial or national program, could help to strengthen the Greenbelt’s roles in stopping urban sprawl, preserving agricultural land and maintaining ecological goods and services. The ALUS concept and means of applying it could also play an important role in discussions regarding how to support the farm economy and rural communities in the Greenbelt. ALUS may be particularly appropriate as a means of enhancing the economic and ecological aspects of peri-urban agriculture. One of the thesis conclusions is that while ALUS could play a positive role in the Greenbelt, the program would be insufficient if it were applied on its own. ALUS will need to be packaged with a suite of existing programs that would be able to complement ALUS and address some of its weakness in order to make a stronger contribution. This research has identified new opportunities to promote land stewardship and enhance livelihoods in the agricultural sector as well as a new agenda for sustainable agriculture in the Greenbelt. More generally, the framework for analysis that was applied in this research has a broader applicability and usefulness in sustainability-based decision making processes. The approach outlines how sustainability assessments might specify sustainability considerations and integrate them together in particular applications.

Traditionally, high initial capital costs and lengthy payback periods have been identified as the most significant barriers that limit the diffusion of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. In response, the Ontario Government, through the Ontario Power Authority (OPA), introduced the Renewable Energy Standard Offer Program (RESOP) in November, 2006. The RESOP offers owners of solar PV systems with a generation capacity under 10MW a 20 year contract to sell electricity back to the grid at a guaranteed rate of $0.42/kWh. While it is the intent of incentive programs such as the RESOP to begin to lower financial barriers in order to increase the uptake of solar PV systems, there is no guarantee that the level of participation will in fact rise. The "on-the-ground" manner in which consumers interact with such an incentive program ultimately determines its effectiveness. The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the relationship between the RESOP and solar PV system consumers. To act on this purpose, the experiences of current RESOP participants are presented, wherein the factors that are either hindering or promoting utilization of the RESOP and the adoption of solar PV systems are identified. This thesis was conducted in three phases – a literature review, preliminary key informant interviews, and primary RESOP participant interviews – with each phase informing the scope and design of the subsequent stage. First, a literature survey was completed to identify and to understand the potential drivers and barriers to the adoption of a solar PV system from the perspective of a consumer. Second, nine key informant interviews were completed to gain further understanding regarding the specific intricacies of the drivers and barriers in the case of Ontario, as well as the overall adoption system in the province. These interviews were conducted between July and September, 2008. Third, interviews with 24 RESOP participants were conducted; they constitute the primary data set. These interviews were conducted between November and December, 2008. Findings of this thesis suggest that the early adopters of solar PV systems have been motivated by their self-identified sustainability-oriented social attitudes, rather than the lowering of the financial barrier. Only six of 24 respondents noted that they would not have purchased a solar PV system in the absence of the RESOP. For nine of 24 respondents, the catalyst for the purchase of the solar PV systems was not the creation of the RESOP, but instead the presence of a community-based co-operative purchasing group (CBCPG) that had selected a vender and that provided a support service to help the consumer navigate the administrative processes associated with the RESOP. Regarding the functioning of the RESOP, interview respondents reported lengthy periods of time to secure electrical connection, hidden additional fees, and arduous administrative processes. Based on their experiences interacting with Local Distribution Companies, vendors, and the OPA, respondent evaluations of the overall adoption process ranged from extremely positive (some interviewees praised the RESOP for its ease of participation and utility), to extremely negative (other interviewees condemned the RESOP because of its administrative complexity and hidden costs and fees). A key finding from this research is that weaknesses in the administration and promotion of the RESOP have been mitigated by the presence of CBCPGs and third parties aiding consumers in the purchase, installation, administration, and connection of their solar PV system. Recommendations of this thesis include the creation of new and enhancement of existing CBCPGs, a simplification of the required administrative processes, and an increase in the rates of compensation.

In 2009, Ontario’s electricity system is in the midst of redevelopment to be sustainable, competitive and reliable. To advance this goal, conservation and demand management (CDM) is a key part of the plan. For CDM plans to be successful, it is necessary to understand why organizations undertake CDM activities. This thesis presents a case study, from 2001 to 2006, investigating organizations’ motivations, enablers and barriers associated with conservation, efficiency and demand response activities. Participants included general service customers with loads greater than 50 kW in Milton, Ontario (Canada). Interviews with representatives from 17 organizations included industrial, commercial and institutional customers. Observations at Milton Hydro Energy Drill Program events, analyses of participants’ electricity usage data, and investigations of the participants’ public profiles were included in the case study. All participants reported undertaking at least one CDM activity. The primary motivation was financial benefit. Customer satisfaction was also an important motivator for some participants. Adhering to business policies and objectives and environmental benefit were complimentary to these main motivations. The Energy Drill Program, in some cases, led to increased conservation and efficiency by encouraging a focus on internal systems and practices as well as by providing an opportunity for businesses to save on operating costs while benefiting from an associated positive public image. The commercial and industrial participants were interested in CDM activities as long as they fit within their business financial management requirements and/or contributed to their business’s competitiveness through improved image or otherwise. The social and/or environmental benefits were seen as complimentary, yet not enough to drive the activities on their own. Most of the institutional participants emphasized the community contribution as an enabler of their participation in the demand response program, however, two of the four such participants did not appear to participate in the program on a regular basis, based on the program impact reports. This incongruity between reported and actual behaviour in this sector may be an interesting area for further research. The barriers reported were for known opportunities and these included the inadequate and uncertain financial benefits, technological uncertainty, and, particularly for the small to medium sized businesses, the limited capacity to further investigate and pursue opportunities. Future research could investigate each sector and/or CDM activity sub-category independently for more specific insights.

This research involves conducting a resilience assessment on the Town of Caledon in southern Ontario, Canada, through the use of the Resilience Assessment Workbook authored by the Resilience Alliance. The purpose of the research is to develop a comprehensive understanding of Caledon, and identify ways to enhance its resilience as a linked social-ecological system in the context of urban growth. Urban growth pressures have brought multiple challenges to Caledon in land use, infrastructure maintenance, farmland preservation and watersheds conservation. Urban growth management in Caledon is situated in the provincial growth strategy for the Greater Golden Horseshoe areas in Ontario. Provincial legislation including the Places to Grow Act (2005), the Greenbelt Act (2005), the Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Act (2001) and the Provincial Policy Statement (2005) aim to reconcile the needs for population increase, economic growth and environmental protection. The results of the resilience assessment of Caledon consist mainly of a cross-scalar study and interviews with twenty-six community members. The cross-scalar study examines Caledon in its social, ecological and economic domains on the provincial, regional and municipal levels. The study also identifies potential resilience threats and assets of Caledon in the context of urban growth. Interviews have been conducted to verify and complement findings of the cross-scalar study. Interviewees include Caledon municipal staff, residents, environmental group leaders, politicians, an aggregates industry representative, a social services representative and a local property developer. The results of this research reveal resilience threats and assets in Caledon, and identify ways for the town to enhance resilience against urban growth pressures. Threats to resilience are found to be associated with urbanization, agricultural land loss, aggregates mining and a lack of affordable housing. Assets of resilience in Caledon are found to be related to civic engagement, participatory planning and agricultural diversification. Based on the cross-scalar study and interview results, emerging themes of resilience and recommendations are developed. Recommendations for Caledon to enhance its resilience include: promoting continual learning and adaptive governance; diversifying agriculture; providing affordable housing; treating urbanization as an opportunity; and developing trade-off principles for the implementation of an integrated plan for resilience.

Public transit provides an important community service by reducing pollution, traffic congestion, and by providing transportation for those who do not or cannot drive. Yet since the 1950s, real investment levels in transit have declined in many North American cities which has resulted in diminished service levels and ridership. In order for transit agencies to attract more riders, transit service must be competitive with alternative modes of transport, particularly private automobiles. However, since funding is limited, planning staff must ensure that the service changes that are implemented result in the greatest benefits to the system. This thesis presents an iterative approach to evaluating service changes in a transit network that combines the output from sophisticated transportation models, demographic data, and software analysis with local knowledge and expertise. The thesis focuses specifically on three common challenges in transit planning: quantifying costs of transfers between destinations within a system, examining access distances to transit as a measure of transit supportiveness, and estimating ridership changes resulting from small route adjustments. Three GIS-based tools, referred to as the Transfer, Access and Route Planning Tools, were developed to address these challenges and were demonstrated using transit system data from the Region of Waterloo in Southwestern Ontario. The Transfer Tool was used to highlight trips with high transfer costs to determine which changes in the route structure would result in the greatest reduction of the generalized cost of a trip attributed to transfers. Results from the Access Tool and Route Planning Tools demonstrated how changes to the streets along which transit routes operate influence access distances to transit, and further, transit ridership. The Access Tool also demonstrated how the design of the street network and the presence of pedestrian paths may affect access distances. Finally, this thesis concludes by recommending areas of future research.

There are three distinct motivating factors behind this research: 1) ecosystems are threatened across Canada and require locations within which to establish or re-establish natural features to support native species; 2) agricultural livelihoods for small and medium farmers in Canada are insufficient; 3) there are increasing societal demands on farmers to ascribe to “environmentally friendly” agricultural practices. In Canada there is no comprehensive or integrated agricultural-environmental policy agenda that deals with these interrelated issues. This research explores the interaction of the issues within a cross-scalar framework that explores a relatively new concept, novel ecosystems, in order to provide a targeted approach to agri-environmental programming for the Canadian setting. Market forces and technological changes have driven Canadian agricultural policy and have shaped contemporary agriculture-ecological interactions on farmlands across Canada. The concept of novel ecosystems is expanded to focus on maintaining farm communities and protecting and rehabilitating rural ecosystems and ecosystem services as a response to the drivers of landscape decision-making. The outcome is a framework that integrates the literature pertaining to ecosystem management and transformation and sustainable transitions to guide the usage of novel ecosystems for agricultural programming. A case study in the Niagara Region that examined the program content of different relevant agri-environmental initiatives and engaged the local farming community revealed that landowners would be interested in programs that are based on the principle of maximum net gains (sensu Gibson et al. 2005). In this study, maximum net gains requires designing an agri-environmental program that ensures that, financially, farmers can continue farming while at the same time improving social, cultural, ecological and financial environment in which they are embedded. A pilot case example of the technical implementation of novel agro-ecosystem component using two irrigation ponds and and three species (Scirpus atrovriens, Carex lacustris, and Sagittaria latifolia) and as of 2011 repeated measures ANOVA indicated that singular plantings of S. latifolia at densities of as little as 1 ramet/50 cm2 is an effective strategy in establishing a dominant plant community in semi-naturalized irrigation ponds. However, for restoration of irrigation ponds on agricultural lands devoid of facultative wetland species planting S. atrovirens at densities of 3 ramets/50 cm2 is an effective strategy in establishing a dominant emergent vegetation community. A synthesis demonstrates how the findings interact in reality and forms the basis for a multi-scaled approach for an agroecological policy agenda. This is accomplished using research called Wild LifeLines™ by Fields et al. (2010) and a spatially explicit asset inventory to create an approach that triages agricultural landscapes and determines how to incorporate novel ecosytems into individual farms and particularly, outlines the significance of a cross-scalar approach for agri-environmentalism in Canada.