Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oregon, 2007. / Typescript. Includes vita and abstract. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 339-383).

The arid interior of South Africa lacks long, continuous and well-dated climate and environmental proxy records that can be compared with cultural sequences and with broader global climate records. This thesis develops the first substantial terrestrial environmental sequence for the interior of southern Africa at the site of Wonderwerk Cave, spanning two million years of prehistory. Changes in vegetation and humidity over time were investigated by means of carbon and oxygen stable isotope analysis on fossil herbivore enamel and ostrich eggshell, creating two independent proxy datasets. The Holocene record was used as a baseline for comparing the Pleistocene sequence, but required chronological tightening. Therefore, nine new radiocarbon dates were obtained, and calibrated and modelled with existing dates to provide a firmer chronology. The ostrich eggshell isotope record suggests arid but variable conditions, with distinct phases of increased humidity in the Early Pleistocene and mid-Holocene. Enamel stable isotope results show clear differences in local resource availability between the Early and Mid-Pleistocene, and then between the Pleistocene and Holocene, with an overall trend of increasing aridity. In particular, the onset of dietary specialisation in grazers at 0.8Ma is linked to expanding C4 grasslands. Aridity was not the driver behind the increase in C4 grasses, but changing pCO2 levels at the Mid Pleistocene transition were identified as a possible key factor. The presence of C3 and C4 grasses in the Early Pleistocene, when compared to the domination of C4 grasses today, was fostered by reduced rainfall seasonality. Regional independent developments have to be considered, as other regions in South and East Africa show C4 dominated diets in herbivores at earlier times than at Wonderwerk Cave. In the Holocene, higher temporal resolution indicates phases of environmental change coinciding with changes in the cultural record.

The aim of this thesis was to reconstruct dietary choices for Neolithic populations in Anatolia and Poland using stable isotope analysis, and to examine the extent to which local environmental factors in these regions affected the isotope values recorded from skeletal collagen. In total 278 new δ13C and δ15N values were obtained from human and animal bone collagen for this project (161 from the site of Oslonki 1, 59 from Barçin Höyük, and 58 from the site of Aktopraklik). From an environmental perspective, the multi-level statistical modelling highlighted a clear relationship with δ13C and δ15N and moisture availability, which was most evident through the proxy of mean annual precipitation (MAP). The modelling highlighted a 0.4‰ decrease in d13C for every 100mm decrease of MAP, and a 0.5‰ decrease in d15N for every 100mm decrease between sites. The δ13C and δ15N values for the North-West Anatolian sites are the first dietary isotopic studies for the Neolithic period in the region. The values are largely commensurate with the dietary isotope studies from Neolithic sites located on the Central Anatolian plateau, with the caveat that the North-West sites perhaps had a greater reliance on herbivore protein (instead of plant protein) than their plateau counterparts. The dietary reconstruction of Oslonki 1 uncovered a rather unexpected outcome - namely that status exerted a degree of control over human diet. If this is indeed true it will be the earliest evidence in Europe of a distinct relationship between the socioeconomic status and diet of an individual.

Ce mémoire a pour objectif la description du paysage végétal de la pointe à Callière (BjFj-101) à Montréal de 1590 à 1879 à partir des données polliniques associées à des données archéologiques et historiques. Ce mandat est mené à bien à travers la construction de graphiques temporels représentation la variation polliniques des espèces végétales à travers les différentes couches datées archéologiquement. Par l’échantillonnage de cinq colonnes de sédiments, le projet couvre les occupations protohistoriques et historiques initiales jusqu’à l’ère industrielle : il parvient ainsi à décrire la transformation du paysage boisé à clairières modelé par l’exploitation amérindienne en un quartier commercial portuaire à végétation de friche et d’arrière-cour. L’analyse pollinique d’une aire d’horticulture dans le sol naturel, puis d’un foyer daté au radiocarbone de 1615-1640, permet de préciser la séquence d’occupation de la fin du XVIe siècle au début du XVIIe siècle. Elle met en lumière une phase de jardinage protohistorique. De nouvelles données sur les jardins de Callière ont permis de mieux comprendre l’organisation des cultures dans les jardins maréchaux du XVIIIe siècle, ainsi l’urbanisation du paysage à l’aube du XIXe siècle. L’étude des traces polliniques et chimiques laissées dans le sol par les occupations commerciales subséquentes ont permis de mettre à jour une végétation diagnostique d’un lot commercial et industriel du XIXe siècle situé au sein du quartier portuaire montréalais. La séquence pollinique de ces évènements, s’étendant sur près de 400 ans, met en lumière l’évolution des rapports socio-environnementaux et propose une chronologie référentielle continue sur un site colonial et urbain d’Amérique du Nord. / This thesis describes the vegetal landscape at the Pointe à Callière (BjFj-101) in Montreal from about 1590 to 1879, drawing on pollinic data associated with archaeological and historical data to construct time graphs representing the variation of pollen through different layers dated archaeologically. This project covers the initial proto-historic and historic occupations until the industrial age: it aims to describe the conversion of the wooded glades landscape shaped by Indian occupation into the commercial backlot vegetation of the 19th century. The pollinic analysis of a horticultural area and a fireplace dated from 1615-1640 radiocarbon specifies the sequence of occupation from the late 16th century to the early 17th century, highlighting a proto-gardening phase. New data on the Callière gardens helps to better understand the organization of 18th century crops, and the urbanization of landscape at the dawn of the 19th century. The study of pollinic and chemical traces left in the soil by subsequent commercial occupations allows us a glimpse into the commercial and industrial vegetation of the Montreal port area. Spanning almost 300 years, the pollinic sequence of these events highlights the changing socio-environmental relations and offers a referential chronology on a prominent colonial and urban site in North America.

L’essor et le développement des sociétés mayas anciennes dans un environnement forestier tropical, longtemps réputé hostile, ont soulevé de nombreuses questions, pour la plupart restées sans réponse par manque de données empiriques. Les modèles relatifs à l'exploitation des forêts, à l’impact anthropique sur le milieu et aux stratégies d’adaptation aux changements environnementaux au cours des trois millénaires d'occupation maya, bien que fondés sur des données palynologiques et sédimentologiques, n'ont que rarement été validés par des données archéologiques ou archéobotaniques. En particulier, il n’existe que très peu d'études sur l’économie des bois de feu dans les sociétés mayas préhispaniques, alors que le bois, en tant que ressource de base, constitue assurément un important marqueur écologique et économique dans l’étude des sociétés préindustrielles. Notre projet doctoral avait donc pour objectif principal de reconstituer, par le biais d'une étude anthracologique systématique et diachronique, les stratégies d'acquisition et les usages des bois de feu sur un site maya, afin d'analyser l'impact réciproque entre les activités humaines et les changements du couvert ligneux local sur toute la durée de son occupation. Cette recherche a été menée sur le site de Naachtun, cité de la période classique (250-950 apr. J.-C.) situé à l'extrême nord du Guatemala. Son développement sur huit siècles (≈150-950/1000 apr. J.-C.), les dynamiques de population non linéaires qu'on y observe, ainsi que sa résilience face à la crise du Classique terminal, faisaient tout l'intérêt de Naachtun pour étudier les interactions entre les anciens Mayas et les forêts sur le temps long. Ce travail a nécessité au préalable la compilation d'une collection anatomique de référence des bois des Basses Terres centrales, qui compte aujourd'hui 231 taxons appartenant à 52 familles, matériels physiques et numériques compris. Deux autres thématiques de recherche ont été développées dans ce projet. La première traite de l'impact des processus taphonomiques sur la préservation des charbons archéologiques dans les sites mayas, à travers une étude expérimentale de la combustion de cinq essences de la forêt maya. La seconde a porté sur l'usage du feu et des cendres dans les pratiques rituelles des anciens Mayas. Les dépôts de cendres et de charbons résultant d'actions rituelles y sont examinés selon une approche spatiale de façon à restituer les gestes humains responsables de leur formation. À travers ces trois axes de recherches interdépendants, on démontre l'apport de l'anthracologie dans l'étude des dynamiques socio-environnementales et des comportements humains dans les Basses Terres mayas. / The rise and development of ancient Maya societies in the tropical forests of the Maya Lowlands, a demanding environment, have raised important questions, most of which remain unanswered due to a lack of empirical data. Models describing Maya forest exploitation, landscapes impact and adaptation to environmental changes over three millennia of occupation mostly rely on palynological and sedimentological data. Archaeological or archaeobotanical data has conversely very rarely been used to test these models. Specifically, no attempt has been made to reconstruct systematically the global wood economy of ancient Maya cities. Wood was an indispensable resource for the Maya, as for all pre-industrial societies, and thus constitutes a key economic and ecological indicator for understanding socio-environmental interactions over time. This doctoral study therefore aims to conduct a systematic and diachronic anthracological study at a Maya site, in order to reconstruct domestic firewood collection strategies and analyze cross relations between human activities and woodland changes throughout the whole length of the occupation. This research has been carried out at the site of Naachtun, a Classic period city (AD 250-950) located in northern Petén, Guatemala. The development of the city over eight centuries≈ ( AD 150 -950/1000), with non-linear population dynamics, and its resilience during the Terminal Classic crisis, made the site of Naachtun a relevant candidate for the study of the interactions between the ancient Maya and the forest on a long-term scale. This required beforehand the compilation of a wood reference collection for the Central Maya Lowlands, which now comprises 231 taxa belonging to 52 families, physical and numerical materials included. Two other lines of research have been developed in this project. The first focuses on the impact of taphonomic processes on the preservation of archaeological charcoal at Maya sites, by means of an experimental study of the combustion of five tree species of the Maya forest. The second one deals with the use of fire and ashes in the ritual practices of the ancient Maya. Ash and charcoal deposits resulting from ritual actions are examined through a spatial approach in order to reconstitute the human gestures that are responsible for their formation. These three interdependent lines of research allow us to demonstrate the usefulness of anthracology in the study of the socio-environmental dynamics and human behaviors in the Maya Lowlands.

This work attempts to seek new insights in understanding the archeological phenomena traditionally labelled as the western Bronze Age and the coastal Pre-Roman cultures of Finland (1500 BC-AD 1), by studying the phenomena from a socioeconomic interaction and practice oriented community perspective. The basic line of thought is that it was the everyday life of the local agents and their interactions that constituted the local communities. Communities are seen as built from the bottom up by the interaction of various local agents. The organised agents, their practices and their mutual interaction on various scales of social organisation are regarded as the central factors that created and shaped the history of the communities. Problems that are addressed concern the interrelationship between the subsistence practices, habitation practices and the social organisation of the coastal communities. Houses and local polities are regarded as two basic social institutions that were essential for the structuration of the coastal communities and for their relation to external networks. I also address the issue of the various spatial and temporal scales that can be considered as essential for the structuration of the coastal communities, and furthermore how the coastal communities managed change over time. The geographical scope of this thesis is limited to the former province of Vaasa (Vaasan lääni/Vasa län) in western Finland, with a special emphasis on the coastal southern part of Ostrobothnia.  A suggested high-rank House from the Late Bronze Age is studied in Laihia. Methodologically a broad perspective with a comparative, diachronic and a multi-proxy approach is conducted in the study of the structuration of communities. The constitution of the communities is largely approached through themes that are related to landscape and settlement archaeology. Contextual analyses of the combinations of various subsistence and habitation practices form the basis for the identification of different community constituting subgroups of agents.

Η παρούσα διδακτορική διατριβή μελετά την παράκτια ζώνη, της Αλεξάνδρειας (Αιγύπτου) με σκοπό: (1) την ανάπλαση του παράκτιου παλαιοπεριβάλλοντος στο οποίο αναπτύχθηκε η Ελληνιστική Αλεξάνδρεια και πώς αυτό επηρέασε στην ίδρυση και στην εξέλιξη της πόλης, (2) τον εντοπισμό ναυαγίων, καταβυθισμένων λιμενικών εγκαταστάσεων και άλλων μαρτυριών ανθρώπινης δραστηριότητας. Για την επίτευξη των παραπάνω στόχων xρησιμοποιήθηκαν εξειδικευμένες θαλάσσιες γεωφυσικές τεχνολογίες, όπως ηχοβολιστής πλευρικές σάρωσης, τομογράφος υποδομής πυθμένα, απλό και διαφορικό GPS. Η ανάλυση και επεξεργασία των συλλεγέντων δεδομέμων πραγματοποιήθηκε με τη βοήθεια των υπολογιστικών πακέτων Matlab και ArcGIS. Δημιουργήθηκαν πρωτότυπα και εύχρηστα μεθοδολογικά σχήματα (PalaeogAn και TargAn), με τη βοήθεια σύγχρονων μεθόδων επεξεργασίας και ανάλυσης εικόνας, με σκοπό την επεξεργασία των αναλογικών γεωφυσικών καταγραφών, σε ένα αυτοματοποιημένο ψηφιακό περιβάλλον. Η ανάλυση των γεωφυσικών καταγραφών έδειξε την ύπαρξη μίας kurkar δομής σχήματος Τ παρόμοιας σε σχήμα, σύσταση και προσανατολισμό με το δομικό σύστημα νήσος Φάρος-Επταστάδιο-Λιμένες της Αλεξάνδρειας, μετατοπισμένη προς τα ΒΑ. Η μελέτη των μεταβολών της στάθμης της θάλασσας και η ανάλυση των τομογραφιών, έδειξε ότι η παράκτια ζώνη της Αλεξάνδρειας διαμορφώνεται από μία σειρά επάλληλων παλαιοακτών, σε βάθη νερού 16, 14, 12, 10, 8 m, οι οποίες αντιστοιχούν στην ακτογραμμή της περιοχής το 3300π.Χ (βασίλειο Harpoon), 2700π.Χ, 2000π.Χ, 1400π.Χ (οικισμός Ραχώτιδας), και 300π.Χ (Πτολεμαϊκή Αλεξάνδρεια) αντίστοιχα. Η δομή Τ ήταν πάνω από την επιφάνεια της θάλασσας και διαμόρφωνε ασφαλές αγκυροβόλιο (3300-2000π.Χ), ενώ αργότερα βυθίστηκε (2000-300π.Χ) αρχικά στα -2m (1400π.Χ) και στη συνέχεια στα -4m βάθος (300π.Χ), ενεργώντας ως φυσικός κυματοθραύστης που προστάτευε την ακτή από τη διάβρωση και τη θαλασσοταραχή. Επίσης φαίνεται ότι η είσοδος του Ανατολικού Λιμένα στα Πτολεμαϊκά χρόνια ήταν πολύ στενή (600m), στα ΒΑ της Άκρας Λοχιάδος και στο εσωτερικό του Ανατολικού Λιμένα εκείνη την εποχή υπήρχαν βραχονησίδες, το 92% της Άκρας Λοχιάδος είναι σήμερα καταβυθισμένο. Τέλος επιτεύχθηκε α) ο εντοπισμός ενός αρχαίου ναυαγίου, δύο περιοχών με έρματα αρχαίων πλοίων, δύο αρχαίων προβόλων, δύο σχηματισμών που πιθανώς αποτελούν αρχαία ναύδετα, β) ο εντοπισμός 57 στόχων, η αρχαιολογική σημασία των οποίων αξιολογήθηκε με τη βοήθεια του TargAn και πολυδιάστατων στατιστικών μεθόδων γ) η υπόδειξη νέων περιοχών αρχαιολογικού ενδιαφέροντος. / The aim of this PhD is twofold: (a) to reconstruct the palaeoenvironmental setting where Hellenistic Alexandria was developed, (b) to detect the presence of any prehistorical and historical shipwrecks and evidence of human activity. In order to accomplish the above a geophysical survey was carried out, using a sidescan sonar and a subbottom profiler system, while the positioning was provided by a GPS and DGPS. The geophysical data were analyzed using a Matlab and an ArcGIS software. New, user-friendly methodological schemes, referred to as PalaeogAn και TargAn, were developed using image analysis techniques, in order to analyse analogue geophysical data in a digital environment. The geophysical data analysis shows the presence of a Τ-shape kurkar ridge, which stands at a minimum water depth of 11m below the seasurface at the north end of the Eastern Harbour of Alexandria. This kurkar formation is almost identical with that of the Pharos island–Heptastadion-Alexandria Harbours. Sea level changes and geophysical data analysis suggest that Alexandria’s coastal zone is characterized by a series of parallel submerged palaeoshorelines, at water depths of 16, 14, 12, 10 and 8 m, which represent the coastlines of 3300 BC (kingdom of Harpoon), 2700 BC, 2000 BC, 1400 BC (ancient Rachotis), and 300 BC (Ptolemaic Alexandria) respectively. The Τ-shape structure between 3300-2000BC was above msl creating a safe anchorage for ancient ships. In 1400 BC and 300 BC it was 2m and 4m under msl respectively, acting as a natural breakwater and protecting the coast from wave action. During the Hellenistic times (300 BC) the Eastern Harbour entrance was much smaller (600m) than today. At the northeastern end of Cape Lochias and in the inner Eastern Harbour dangerous shoals and reefs were scattered. Cape Lochias was much larger than it is today as the most of it (92%) is at present submerged. The insonification revealed (a) the existence of an ancient shipwreck, two areas with ship ballast, two structures which might have been used as buoys, two structures that were propably used as moles, (b) the presence of 57 acoustic anomalies, which were analyzed using the TargAn and multivariate statistical methods, (c) new areas of archaeological importance to be surrveyed in the near future. The results of the statistical analysis classified the acoustic anomalies into groups showing their archaeological validity.