Environmental enrichment is a technique used at many captive animal facilities that can improve the well-being of their animals. It seeks to enhance habitat features and promote natural behavior by providing a variety of practical ways for captive animals to control their environmental settings, especially during stressful circumstances. Enclosure features, such as shelter structures, are one tool that promotes wild behavior by adding complexity to an enclosure’s physical environment. Enrichment efforts for captive wildlife are most effective when they are specialized to the biological needs of the animals. Human activity may alter captive animal behavior and utility of enclosure features, and there is concern that human presence can negatively impact the welfare of some captive animals. Captive coyotes (Canis latrans) at the USDA-National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) Predator Research Facility in Millville, UT, USA, are maintained for research on biology, ecology, physiology and behavior. Coyotes at the research facility are routinely noticed utilizing shelter structures to hide, rest, and display vigilant behavior. Because they regularly use these simple structures, new and more complex enrichment shelter structures were installed to be evaluated. Specific research objectives aimed to assess (1) coyote enclosure utilization and shelter structure preferences, and (2) coyote spatial and behavioral responses to human activity. Using 32 mated coyote pairs rotated through eight 1.5-acre enclosures for 28-day trials over the winter months (January – March) of 2015 and 2016, spatial and behavioral patterns were monitored via the implementation of GPS-collars and live behavioral observations. Coyotes showed preference for shelter structure designs, but still spent most of their time at the perimeter and open areas of their enclosures. Complex structures were preferred over simple structures. Coyotes most often demonstrated inactive and vigilant behavior without human activity, but showed increased vigilance when there was human activity. Human activity also stimulated coyotes to become more active than inactive and reduce their utilization of enrichment structures. Although there was no clear preference for one specific type of enrichment structure, composite evidence from GPS-collars and behavioral data suggest the ramp may have heightened biological suitability. This study advances the knowledge of captive coyote spatial patterns and helps improve environmental enrichment planning for captive animals by exploring effective methods of adding complexity to animal enclosures.

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<p>  </p> <p>Environmental enrichments have been investigated to determine impacts on turkey health and welfare; however, there is limited data to determine the impact of these enrichments on fresh or processed turkey meat quality. One hundred and forty-four turkeys were randomly assigned to six enrichment treatments: control (C), pecking block (PB), platform (P), platform + straw bale (PSB), straw bale (SB), and tunnel (T). Each treatment was replicated within two rooms in the same barn, with 24 pens total (n = 4 pens/treatment). At 19 weeks of age, turkeys were weighed (live weight, kg), and harvested over two days, with three birds from each pen per day (n=144). A subset of 96 turkeys were fabricated into wings, boneless thighs, drumsticks, and boneless breasts at 24 h postmortem in order to determine carcass cutting yields. From the breast and thigh, three, 1.25 cm samples were taken for pH, proximate analysis, and drip loss. From the breast, three, 2.54 cm samples were taken for instrumental color and sensory analysis, with all remaining breast sample used for further processed boneless turkey breast. Breast portions were pumped with a commercial brine (water, salt, brown sugar, sodium phosphate, sodium erythorbate, and sodium nitrite) to 110% by weight. Brined breast was then vacuum sealed and vacuum tumbled (9 rpm for 90 min, stopping every 15 min for 10 min). Tumbled breast was stuffed into a cellulose casing, thermally processed (internal temperature 68.3oC), and smoked to produce boneless turkey logs. From each log, eight, 1.25 cm slices were taken for packaged purge loss, expressed moisture, instrumental color, and texture and sensory analysis. All treatment levels were analyzed using PROC GLM (SAS 9.4, SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Statistical significance level was set at <em>P≤</em>0.05. For fresh turkey, results showed significant differences in live weight by treatment. SB turkeys weighed the least, PB turkeys weighed the most, and T, PSB, C, and P were intermediate in weight (<em>P=</em>0.008). Treatment did not impact the cut-out values for breasts (<em>P=</em>0.387), thighs (<em>P=</em>0.985), wings (<em>P=</em>0.211), and drumsticks (<em>P=</em>0.575). Treatment did not impact breast L* (<em>P=</em>0.777), a* (<em>P=</em>0.247), or b* (<em>P=</em>0.366) or thigh L* (<em>P=</em>0.936) and a* (<em>P=</em>0.067), but PSB thighs displayed the highest b* values and PB thighs displayed the lowest (<em>P=</em>0.037). Finally, for fresh turkey, treatment did not impact breast drip loss (<em>P=</em>0.766), thigh drip loss (<em>P=</em> 0.933), breast pH (<em>P=</em>0.197), or thigh pH (<em>P=</em>0.385). For processed turkey quality, treatment had no effect on a* (<em>P=</em>0.498) or b* (<em>P=</em>0.831) but was significant for L*. SB, T, P, and PSB had lighter color values, C had darker color values, and PB had intermediate values (<em>P=</em>0.024). Finally, for processed turkey quality, treatment did not impact processing yield (<em>P=</em>0.058) or packaged purge loss (<em>P=</em>0.581), but treatment impacted expressed moisture (<em>P=</em>0.041). PB, PSB, C, and T had higher expressed moisture loss, P had the lowest, and SB had intermediate expressed moisture loss (<em>P=</em>0.041).</p>

<p>    Injurious pecking, aggression, footpad dermatitis and leg abnormalities have been identified as major welfare issues in commercial turkey production, which lead to culling and mortality, downgraded carcass value and economic losses due to decreased productivity and carcass damage. Injurious pecking includes aggressive pecking (head pecking), feather pecking, and cannibalism. Aggressive pecking is related to aggression and is more prevalent in males than females. Feather pecking consists of non-damaging gentle feather pecking and severe feather pecking that can cause feather, skin and tissue damage, and even death in extreme cases. Common methods to control injurious pecking include infrared beak treatment and reduced light intensity, but those methods can result in inconsistent effects on feather condition and negative affect eye development. Footpad dermatitis and leg abnormalities can lead to lameness and an inability of turkeys to access feed and water. </p> <p>    Environmental enrichment, which is the modification of the environment of captive animals to improve their biological functioning, is one alternative way of reducing injurious pecking and potentially improving turkeys’ walking ability. In meat-type poultry production, five types of environmental enrichment are usually used, which include social enrichment, occupational enrichment, physical enrichment, sensory enrichment and nutritional enrichment. For turkeys, some types of physical enrichment such as foraging and pecking enrichment have been found to be most effective in reducing injuries caused by injurious pecking and elevated structures (e.g. platform or straw bale) were effective in promoting locomotive exercise. </p> <p>    To address some of the gaps in the knowledge regarding the effects of environmental enrichment on turkey behavior, welfare and walking ability, this study examined 1) age-related changes in welfare and gait when turkeys are provided with different types of environmental enrichment; 2) the effects of different types of environmental enrichment on enrichment usage and injurious pecking behavior; 3) specific behaviors and relative location of turkeys when they interact with different types of environmental enrichment.</p> <p>    Data were collected from a total of 420 beak-trimmed tom turkeys housed in 24 littered pens located in two rooms within the same barn. Birds were randomly assigned to six treatment groups with 4 replicate pens per treatment group, including five enrichment groups (straw bale, platform, platform + straw bale, pecking block and tunnel) and a control group (no additional enrichment provided). Welfare measures (wounds on the head, neck, snood, back and tail; beak abnormalities; feather quality; feather cleanliness; and footpad condition) and walking ability (gait) were assessed at 8, 12, 16 and 19 wk. Postmortem footpad condition was assessed at 19 wk. Behavior of turkeys was video recorded at 8, 12 and 16 wk and analyzed using scan sampling. The proportions of turkeys performing target behaviors were determined every 15 min (07:00 h - 22:00 h). Welfare and gait data were analyzed using PROC LOGISTIC with Firth bias-correction. Behavior data were analyzed using PROC GLIMMIX.</p> <p>    Better wing feather quality with age was observed in turkeys in the straw bale and tunnel groups. Footpad condition worsened with age for turkeys in all treatment groups except for the straw bale group. Gait worsened with age in all treatment groups while earlier onset of gait problem was observed in turkeys provided with a tunnel or no enrichment (control group). The average proportion of turkeys using the enrichments declined with age. Turkeys provided with a platform + straw bale had the highest levels of enrichment usage, followed by the platform group. Preening and severe feather pecking behavior did not change with age and were unaffected by the type of enrichment provided. Aggressive pecking and gentle feather pecking were not influenced by the type of enrichment provided. Higher average proportions of turkeys were observed performing environmental pecking in the control group than in the platform + straw bale group. Turkeys’ usage of enrichments mainly included resting on top, locomotion, pecking and remaining under the enrichment when they had access to platforms; resting on top, locomotion and pecking when they had access to straw bales or pecking blocks; and remaining in the tunnel and pecking when they had access to a tunnel.</p> <p>    In conclusion, environmental enrichment showed beneficial effects on turkey wing feather quality, footpad condition and walking ability. Providing tom turkeys with straw bales and tunnels as environmental enrichment can help improve wing feather quality with age and providing straw bales may reduce the development of footpad dermatitis under suboptimal litter conditions. Providing enrichments that can help increase turkey activity and locomotion, including enrichment that can satisfy turkeys’ pecking and foraging needs (straw bale or pecking block) and elevated structures (bale or platform), may be beneficial for turkey walking ability. Multi-functional environmental enrichments, especially a combination of enrichment objects, can promote turkeys’ natural behaviors. Turkeys had the highest enrichment usage when provided with a combination of different enrichment objects (e.g., platform + straw bale) that can serve multiple functions to fulfill their different behavioral needs. Providing a platform only can also achieve high enrichment usage. Turkeys gradually lost interest in interacting with enrichments over time, which may be associated with habituation, destruction of some enrichment objects (e.g. straw bale and pecking block) and fecal contamination on the surface of enrichments. </p> <p>    Future research will be valuable in examining the effects of different types of environmental enrichment in various commercial facilities and across different flocks and seasons. Research is needed to examine the effect of enrichments on turkey activity levels and whether there is a relationship between increased activity level and turkey walking ability. In addition, the effectiveness of making periodic changes to the enrichment objects and using unpredicted schedules of presenting the enrichments on habituation will need to be examined.</p>

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The tiger (Panthera tigris) was once abundant in many of Asia’s forests. The entire species now hovers dangerously close to extinction. Population declines within the last two centuries are blamed largely on loss of habitat, reductions in prey species, poaching, and human-tiger conflict. Modern tiger conservation efforts focus on reintroducing formerly captive tigers to designated protected wild areas. Re-wilding and reintroduction programs teach survival skills to tiger cubs raised in zoo collections. Merging in situ and ex situ research collaborations is the twenty-first century’s interdisciplinary answer to the tiger’s plight in the wild. The zoo is viewed in terms of its role as an institution that represents societal values that shift in concurrence with shifting paradigms. This thesis studies the human-tiger relationship and analyzes three defining periods that occurred between 1800 and the present. The first period occurred during the nineteenth century, the second took place from the early through the late twentieth century and the third picked up where the second left off and is the one we are presently engaged in. The tiger is investigated in two different ways throughout — for its importance in human history and culture conceptually, and in the biological sense in terms of its importance as umbrella species within its own ecosystem. / Master of Science