Cytokines play an important regulatory role during immune responses against pathogens. The outcome of an induced cytokine pattern is determined by many factors. It strongly depends on the nature of the pathogen and the host’s ability to control the quality and strength of cytokine signals. In pulmonary infection with Cryptococcus neoformans T helper (Th) 1 and Th17 cell subsets and their associated cytokines confer protection, whereas a Th2-biased response with production of interleukin (IL) -4 confers susceptibility. Since inappropriate Th responses often lead to death in immunosuppressed human patients, especially HIV-1 infected patients, this work aimed to elucidate mechanisms of Th2 induction and regulation by assessing the Th2 hallmark cytokine IL-4 in an experimental model of cryptococcosis. Therefore, a kinetic study of IL-4 expression during 70 days after intranasal infection was performed in susceptible mice. The analyses included characterization of pulmonary leukocytes and Th cell cytokine profiling. IL-4 profiling revealed Cryptococcus-specific IL-4 production not before six weeks after infection. This unexpected finding was further validated by equal results observed in a kinetic study done in IL-4 reporter mice. These mice express a green fluorescent protein simultaneously to IL-4 expression in the same cell and this protein can be detected by flow cytometry. Two cellular sources of IL-4 were identified: Th2 cells were found as expected, but also, as shown for the first time, eosinophilic granulocytes could be demonstrated to secrete IL-4. Next, the influence of eosinophils on pulmonary inflammation and disease development was investigated using ΔdblGATA-1 mice constitutively devoid of eosinophilic granulocytes. Experiments with infected ΔdblGATA-1 mice revealed novel regulatory functions of eosinophils in cryptococcosis. In the absence of eosinophils pulmonary Th cell recruitment was significantly diminished. In addition, Th2 polarization was reduced in ΔdblGATA-1 mice as shown by reduced numbers of Th2 cells expressing the Th2-related surface marker T1/ST2 and reduced albeit not absent IL-4 production by Th cells. In addition to reduced IL-4 production, in the absence of eosinophils Th cells with enhanced interferon-γ and IL-17 production were observed. However, control of pulmonary fungal growth was only slightly enhanced in the absence of eosinophils and dissemination of cryptococci to the brain was unaltered. This may be related to the shared IL-4 production by not only eosinophils but also Th2 cells. Blocking more than one cellular source of IL-4 could be required to prevent immunopathology. To test the hypothesis of gradual IL-4-dependent immunopathology, experiments were conducted using mice expressing only one allele of the IL-4receptor (R) alpha (α) chain (+/-) instead of two (+/+). Indeed, mono-allelic expression of the IL-4Rα resulted in an intermediate expression of the IL-4R on the surface of myeloid and lymphoid cells indicating a gene-dosage effect for IL-4R expression. Infected IL-4Rα+/- mice displayed reduced susceptibility as compared with IL-4Rα+/+ mice, and IL-4Rα-/- mice completely lacking IL-4R expression were found to be protected with survival for the complete time period of the experiment (i.e. up to 275 days). Reduced susceptibility found in infected IL-4Rα+/- mice was associated with decreased serum levels of immunoglobulin E, reduced mucus production by airway epithelia, attenuation of airway hyper-reactivity, and reduced formation of alternatively activated macrophages in lung parenchyma – pathophysiological features, which are typically found in experimental models of asthma but also in asthma of humans and animals. Since no up-regulation of IL-4R by the infection with Cryptococcus neoformans was found, the experimental pulmonary infection model used appears to be a very sensitive low-level IL-4 system. This work highlights the outstanding role of IL-4 and its different cellular sources as well as its receptor in cryptococcosis and provides novel insights into pathogenesis. Moreover, a cellular (i.e. eosinophils) and a molecular (i.e. IL-4R) target for treatment of this mycosis and possibly of asthma is provided.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde Gewebe aus den Nasennebenhöhlen von Patienten mit Nasenpolypen untersucht. Außerdem wurden Zusammenhänge zwischen den Zellpopulationen und den Angaben zu allergischen Erkrankungen und wiederholtem Auftreten der Polypen analysiert. Es fand sich eine interindividuell unterschiedlich starke Infiltration mit eosinophilen Granulozyten. Es konnten keine Unterschiede in der prozentualen Verteilung von eosinophilen Granulozyten im Polypengewebe bei allergischen/ nichtallergischen Patienten oder Patienten mit/ ohne Rezidiv nachgewiesen werden. Die Untersuchungen erfolgten mit dem Laser Scanning Zytometer (LSC), das mit der Standardmethode, der Begutachtung mittels Lichtmikroskop, verglichen wurde. Mit der beschriebenen Methode erfolgte die Untersuchung von Polypengewebe nach einem speziell für diese Anwendung entwickelten Protokoll. Die Ergebnisse korrelierten gut mit den Ergebnissen der Lichtmikroskopie. Aufgrund der Weiterentwicklung des LSC und der ständig wachsenden Anzahl der Nachweismöglichkeiten der an der Polyposis nasi beteiligten Zytokine stellt das LSC eine ideale Methode für die Erforschung der Pathogenese von chronischen Entzündungen der Nasennebenhöhlen dar.