Desde hace casi tres décadas, los esfingolípidos han entrado a la escena de los lípidos bioactivos. Dentro de esta gran familia, son sus versiones más simples los que han sido relacionados con importantes funciones celulares. La Ceramida (Cer), y su derivado por deacilación, la esfingosina (Sph), han sido reportados como segundos mensajeros de muerte en diversos tipos celulares. Por su parte, sus derivados fosforilados, en especial la esfingosina-1-fosfato (S1P), se han identificado con funciones proliferativas y pro-supervivencia. Diversas señales mitogénicas contribuyen no solo a la proliferación sino también a la migración celular, siendo de especial interés en ciertas patologías como el cáncer. Sin embargo, los procesos celulares invasivos son relevantes también en la retina, el tejido de interés de este trabajo de tesis. Diversas patologías, como la retinopatía diabética, presentan una proliferación exacerbada de las células gliales de Müller (CGM), el principal tipo glial de la retina, proceso conocido como gliosis. En su inicio, esta respuesta es un intento fisiológico por aislar al tejido neuronal de la injuria y reparar el daño. Sin embargo, en un estado patológico, ante la continuidad de la injuria, esta proliferación celular termina convirtiéndose en una cicatriz que afecta el normal funcionamiento del tejido retiniano, llevando en última instancia a la pérdida parcial o total de la visión. Por lo expuesto, resulta relevante investigar estos procesos proliferativos de la retina a fin de encontrar nuevos tratamientos terapéuticos. La información sobre las funciones del esfingolípido mitogénico S1P a nivel de la retina es escasa. Por ejemplo, se ha reportado que la S1P promueve la proliferación y respuestas pro-fibróticas y pro-inflamatorias en células de epitelio pigmentario y que participa en la neo-vascularización retinal y coroidal. Además, los niveles retinales y plasmáticos de S1P aumentan en un modelo inflamatorio inducido por lipopolisacárido. En el primer capítulo de este trabajo de tesis, planteamos la hipótesis de que la S1P podría estar involucrada en los procesos glióticos, participando como una señal clave para inducir la migración glial. Para contrastar nuestra hipótesis, utilizamos un modelo de cultivo primario de células gliales de Müller y analizamos la migración glial mediante el “ensayo de la herida”, un método sencillo y ampliamente utilizado para este propósito. Nuestros experimentos revelaron que la adición exógena de S1P induce modificaciones en el citoesqueleto de las CGM, detectadas en las primeras 8-10 h de tratamiento, que llevan a la formación de lamelipodios y al inicio de la motilidad glial sobre el sustrato. Esta motilidad glial fue claramente superior a la de los cultivos controles luego de 18 h de estímulo. Las CGM expresaron dos de los cinco receptores transmembrana para S1P, los S1PR, específicamente los subtipos S1P1 y S1P3, siendo la activación de este último la que desencadena el proceso migratorio, tal como lo demostraron experimentos utilizando antagonistas selectivos de ambos receptores. Nuestros resultados también mostraron que rio-abajo de la activación del S1P3 se activarían dos importantes vías intracelulares, la vía de ERK/MAPK y la vía de PI3K, ya que el pre-tratamiento con inhibidores de estas vías disminuyó significativamente el estímulo migratorio inducido por S1P. Cabe destacar que esta inducción del proceso migratorio no estuvo acompañada de un incremento significativo en la proliferación glial. Por otra parte, no solo la S1P exógena tuvo un rol en la migración glial. Encontramos que la inhibición de la síntesis endógena de S1P, utilizando un inhibidor selectivo de la enzima esfingosina quinasa 1 (Sphk1) (enzima que cataliza la síntesis de S1P), el inhibidor de SphK1 2 (SphKI2), prácticamente abolió la migración glial basal, es decir aquella observada aun en ausencia de S1P. Estos resultados demuestran que la S1P tiene un rol clave en la inducción de migración glial en la retina, y su bloqueo podría ser utilizado como una estrategia terapéutica para las enfermedades proliferativas de la retina. Otro conjunto de patologías de la retina, de creciente avance y lamentablemente aun sin tratamientos efectivos, son las enfermedades neurodegenerativas. Las mismas son un conjunto de patologías, entre las que destacan la retinitis pigmentosa y la degeneración de la mácula con una variada etiología, con múltiples factores, desde genéticos hasta ambientales como desencadenantes, pero que comparten un denominador común: la muerte de los fotorreceptores (FR). Esta degeneración progresiva de los FR lleva, como consecuencia final, a la pérdida de la visión. Como se describió, Cer y Sph son importantes mediadores de muerte celular y han despertado la atención en el campo de las enfermedades neurodegenerativas. Estudios pioneros encontraron que los niveles de Cer se encontraban aumentados en retinas pos mortem de pacientes con la enfermedad de Faber, y que los niveles de este esfingolípido aumentaban frente a la degeneración neuronal inducida por desprendimiento de retina. Posteriores reportes, incluidos los de nuestro laboratorio, establecieron que la Cer es un mediador clave en la muerte de los FR en cultivo. El daño oxidativo estimula la síntesis de Cer que desencadena la muerte de los FR y este proceso es mimetizado por la adición exógena de un análogo sintético de ceramidas endógenas, la C2-Ceramida (C2Cer). Hallazgos posteriores en diversos modelos animales de neurodegeneración retiniana permiten proponer a la Cer como un mediador central en la activación de la muerte de los FR. Pese a esto, aún no se conoce en profundidad cuáles son los mecanismos moleculares involucrados en este proceso. Esta pregunta resulta relevante, ya que la regulación de los distintos blancos intracelulares de Cer podría emerger como posible terapia para las enfermedades neurodegenerativas de la retina. Ante esto, nos planteamos como objetivo en el 2º capítulo de esta Tesis, estudiar los mecanismos moleculares involucrados en la muerte de los FR mediada por C2Cer, utilizando un modelo de cultivo primario de neuronas de retina de rata. Un trabajo previo de nuestro laboratorio demostró que la C2Cer, en una concentración de 10 μM induce la muerte de los FR y las neuronas amacrinas, los tipos neuronales mayoritarios en los cultivos. Estudiando el proceso de muerte de manera cronológica, encontramos que el tratamiento de cultivos neuronales con C2Cer 10 μM durante 6 h indujo selectivamente la muerte de los FR, disminuyendo el potencial de membrana mitocondrial y aumentando la formación de especies reactivas de oxígeno (ROS). En contraste, las neuronas amacrinas preservaron su viabilidad. Cabe destacar que la cantidad de células marcadas con TUNEL y de FR que expresaron caspasa-3 clivada, forma activa de la caspasa-3, permanecieron constantes y que el pretratamiento con un pan inhibidor de caspasas no evitó la muerte inducida por C2Cer. C2Cer provocó la sobre activación de la poli-ADP ribosil polimerasa-1 (PARP-1). La inhibición de PARP-1 disminuyó la muerte de los FR inducida por C2Cer. A su vez, C2Cer aumentó los niveles de polímero de poli-ADP ribosa (PAR), cuya síntesis es catalizada por PARP-1, e indujo la translocación del factor inductor de apoptosis (AIF) de las mitocondrias al núcleo de los FR, ya que dicha translocación se previno mediante la inhibición de PARP-1. El pretratamiento con un inhibidor de calpaínas y catepsinas, y con un inhibidor de la calpaína redujo la muerte de los FR, mientras que los inhibidores selectivos de catepsinas no otorgaron protección. El pretratamiento combinado con un inhibidor de PARP-1 y un inhibidor de calpaína evidenció la misma protección que cada inhibidor por sí mismo. Esto sugiere que tanto PARP-1 como calpaínas confluyen en el mismo mecanismo de acción rio-abajo de la C2Cer. Ni la autofagia ni la necroptosis estuvieron involucradas en la muerte inducida por C2Cer; no se observó un aumento en la liberación de LDH después del tratamiento con C2Cer y el pretratamiento con inhibidores de la necroptosis y de la autofagia no rescataron a los FR. Estos resultados sugieren que la C2Cer activa la muerte de los FR por un mecanismo novedoso, independiente de caspasas, que implica la activación de PARP-1, disminución del potencial de membrana mitocondrial, activación de calpaína y translocación de AIF, todas las características bioquímicas del tipo de muerte celular denominada parthanatos. Nuestros resultados, sugieren así nuevos blancos terapéuticos, y contribuyen a los avances en la búsqueda de tratamientos efectivos para las enfermedades neurodegenerativas de la retina. / For almost three decades, sphingolipids have entered the bioactive lipid scenery. Within this large family, simple sphingolipids are the ones that have been related to important cellular functions. Ceramide (Cer), and its deacylation derivative, sphingosine (Sph), have been reported as death second messengers in several cell types. On the other hand, its phosphorylated derivatives, especially sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) have been related to proliferative and pro-survival functions. Several mitogenic signals contribute not only to proliferation but also to cell migration, being of special interest in certain pathologies such as cancer. However, invasive cellular processes are also relevant in the retina, the tissue of interest in this thesis work. Diverse pathologies, such as diabetic retinopathy, show an exacerbated proliferation of Müller glial cells (CGM, the main glial type of the retina), a process known as gliosis. Initially, this response is a physiological attempt to isolate neuronal tissue from injury and repair the damage. However, in a pathological state, given the continuity of the injury, this cell proliferation gives rise to a scar that affects the normal functioning of the retinal tissue, ultimately leading to a partial or total vision loss. Therefore, it is relevant to investigate these retinal proliferative processes in order to find new therapeutic treatments. There is scarce information on the functions of the mitogenic sphingolipid S1P in the retina. S1P has been reported to promote proliferation, pro-fibrotic and pro-inflammatory responses in pigment epithelial cells and it also participates in retinal and choroidal neovascularization. In addition, there is an increase in retinal and plasma levels of S1P in an inflammatory model induced by lipopolysaccharide. In the first chapter of this thesis we propose the hypothesis that S1P might be involved in gliotic processes, as a key signal in the induction of glial migration. To test our hypothesis, we used a primary culture model of Müller glial cells and evaluated cell migration by the scratch-wound assay, which is a simple and widely used method. Our experiments revealed that the exogenous addition of S1P modified the CGM cytoskeleton, in the first 8-10 hours of treatment. This addition led to the formation of lamelipodia and to the onset of glial motility. This motility was markedly enhanced compared to control conditions after 18 h of S1P addition. CGM expressed two of the five transmembrane receptors for S1P (S1PR), specifically the S1P1 and S1P3 subtypes. However, only activation of S1P3 was required to induce S1P-induced CGM migration, as evidenced by experiments performed with S1P1 and S1P3 antagonists. Analysis of the signaling pathways activated downstream of S1P3 evidenced that two well-known pathways, the ERK/MAPK and PI3K pathways were activated, since pre-treatment with specific inhibitors, significant reduced S1P-induced glial migration. Of note, this induction of the migratory process was not accompanied by a significant increase in glial proliferation. On the other hand, not only exogenous S1P played a role in glial migration. Inhibition of the endogenous synthesis of S1P, using a selective inhibitor of the enzyme sphingosine kinase 1 (Sphk1) (the enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of S1P), the SphK1 inhibitor number 2 (SphKI2), virtually blocked the basal glial migration, i.e. the migration level observed in the absence of exogenous S1P. These results demonstrated that the S1P-S1P3 axis has a key role in the induction of migration in the retina, and its targeting might provide an interesting approach in the search of new therapeutical treatments for proliferative diseases of the retina. Among retinal pathologies, neurodegenerative diseases are a set of diseases of the retina that progressively lead to vision loss and still lack effective treatments. Pathologies such as retinitis pigmentosa and macula degeneration have very diverse etiologies, varying from genetic to environmental triggers, but which share a common hallmark: the death of photoreceptors (PhRs). This progressive degeneration of PhR leads, as a final consequence, to visual disability and blindness. As described, Cer and Sph are important mediators of cell death and have attracted special attention in the field of neurodegenerative diseases. Pioneering studies found that Cer levels were increased in post-mortem retinas of patients with Faber's disease; furthermore, the levels of this sphingolipid are increased in neuronal degeneration induced by retinal detachment. Subsequent reports, including those from our laboratory, established that Cer is a key mediator in the death of PhRs in culture. Oxidative damage stimulates the synthesis of Cer, which triggers the death of photoreceptors and this process is mimicked by the exogenous addition of a synthetic analogue of an endogenous ceramide, C2-Ceramide (C2Cer). Further work using animal models of retina degeneration support a role for Cer as a crucial signal involved in the induction of PhR death. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in this process are still unknown. Uncovering them is very relevant, since regulating the different intracellular targets of Cer might provide new therapies for neurodegenerative diseases of the retina. The purpose of the second chapter of this thesis was to study the molecular mechanisms involved in the death of PhRs induced by C2Cer, using as a model primary cultures of rat retinal neurons. Previous work from our laboratory showed that 10 μM C2Cer induces the death of PhRs and amacrine neurons, the two major neuronal types in our cultures. A chronological analysis of the death process showed that treatment with 10 μM C2Cer for 6 h selectively induced the death of photoreceptors, decreasing mitochondrial membrane potential and increasing the formation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS). In contrast, amacrine neurons preserved their viability. Of note, the number of cells labeled with TUNEL and of photoreceptors expressing cleaved caspase-3 remained constant and a pretreatment with a pan caspase inhibitor did not prevent C2Cer-induced neuronal death. C2Cer caused over-activation of poly-ADP ribosyl polymerase-1 (PARP-1). The inhibition of PARP-1 decreased photoreceptor death induced by C2Cer. In turn, C2Cer increased poly-ADP ribose (PAR) polymer levels, the synthesis of which is catalyzed by PARP-1, and induced the translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) from mitochondria to the nuclei, which was prevented by PARP-1 inhibition. Pretreatment with a calpain and cathepsin inhibitor, and with a selective calpain inhibitor, reduced photoreceptor death, whereas selective cathepsins inhibitors did not provide any protection. The combined pretreatment with a PARP-1 inhibitor and a calpain inhibitor showed the same extent of protection as each inhibitor by itself. This suggests that both PARP-1 and calpains converge downstream in the same mechanism. Neither autophagy nor necroptosis were involved in C2Cer-induced cell death; no increase in LDH release was observed after C2Cer treatment and pretreatment with necroptosis and autophagy inhibitors did not rescue photoreceptors. These results suggest that the C2Cer-induced photoreceptor death signaling by a novel caspase-independent mechanism, which involves PARP-1 activation, a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential, activation of calpain and translocation of AIF, all of which are biochemical characteristics of the cell death type named parthanatos. In conclusion, our results identify a new therapeutic target, thus contributing to the advances in the search for effective treatments for neurodegenerative diseases of the retina.

Submitted by Ana Paula Macedo (ensino@ioc.fiocruz.br) on 2013-10-03T12:26:40Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Carolina Valença Messias.pdf: 1326403 bytes, checksum: adde2666bf9c1e45634b4ea4926b6090 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-10-03T12:26:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Carolina Valença Messias.pdf: 1326403 bytes, checksum: adde2666bf9c1e45634b4ea4926b6090 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Fundação Oswaldo Cruz. Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil / A leucemia linfoblástica aguda de células T (LLA-T) e o linfoma linfoblástico de células T (LL-T) são proliferações malignas de precursores de células T em diferentes estágios de maturação. LLA-T e LL-T são considerados atualmente duas formas de uma mesma doença, a leucemia/linfoma linfoblástico de células T (LLL-T), por compartilharem características morfológicas, imunofenotípicas e genéticas. Como os blastos de LLL-T apresentam características similares às de timócitos normais, moléculas envolvidas na migração destas células podem também estar envolvidas na migração ou homing dos linfoblastos no curso da doença. Neste sentido, foi demonstrado recentemente que o receptor 1 de esfingosina-1-fosfato (S1P1) é essencial para a saída de timócitos do timo. No presente estudo, decidimos avaliar a expressão e o papel do S1P1 na migração de quatro linhagens celulares de LLA-T (HPB-ALL, MOLT-4, CEM e JURKAT) em resposta ao seu ligante fisiológico, a esfingosina-1-fosfato (S1P). Observamos que a linhagem HPB-ALL apresentou baixa expressão de RNAm de S1P1, enquanto MOLT-4 e JURKAT apresentaram uma expressão mediana e CEM apresentou altos níveis de expressão de RNAm para este receptor. Em ensaios funcionais de migração celular observamos que a capacidade migratória das linhagens frente a S1P foi diretamente relacionada ao nível de expressão gênica do receptor. A S1P induziu a migração das linhagens analisadas em diferentes concentrações até 100 nM, e inibiu a migração quando aplicada em altas concentrações (1000 nM). As respostas migratórias foram acompanhadas pela modulação do citoesqueleto de actina. Dependendo da concentração de S1P utilizada, observamos polimerização (menores concentrações) ou despolimerização (maiores concentrações) da actina. Além disso, o prétratamento das células com W146 (inibidor de S1P1) bloqueou a migração das linhagens frente à S1P em menores concentrações e induziu a migração frente à S1P em altas concentrações, sugerindo que a migração seja especificamente mediada por S1P1. Nossos resultados sugerem que as interações mediadas por S1P/S1P1 modulam a migração não apenas de precursores de células T normais, mas também de linfoblastos de LLL-T. Desta forma, a interação S1P/S1P1 pode ser considerada como alvo para possíveis estratégias terapêuticas frente a estas neoplasias. / T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) and T-cell lymphoblastic lymphoma (TLBL) are malignant proliferations of T cell precursors at different stages of normal development. T-ALL and T-LBL are presently believed to represent two different forms of a single disease, the T-cell lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma (T-LLL), as they share morphological, immunophenotypic and genetic features. As T-LLL lymphoblasts present similar characteristics of normal T cell precursors, molecules involved on the migration of these cells might also be associated with migration and homing of T-ALL/LBL. In this context, the sphingosine-1-phosfate receptor 1 (S1P1), has been described as essential for mouse thymocyte migration and thymic egress. Herein, we evaluated the expression and role of S1P1 in four T-ALL cell lines (HPBALL, MOLT-4, CEM e JURKAT) in response to its physiological ligand, the sphingosine-1-phophate (S1P). We observed that HPB-ALL cells presented low expression levels of S1P1 mRNA, whereas MOLT-4 and JURKAT had medium levels and CEM showed high levels of S1P1 expression. In functional migration assays, we observed that the migratory response of the cells towards S1P was directly related with their expression levels of the receptor. S1P induced the migration of the cell lines analyzed in different concentrations up to 100 nM and inhibited cell migration at higher concentrations (1000 nM). Moreover, migratory responses were accompanied by the modulation of actin cytoskeleton. Depending on S1P concentrations, we observed actin polymerization (lower concentrations) or depolymerization (higher concentrations). Pre-treatment of the cells with W146 (a S1P1 inhibitor) blocked S1Pinduced migration at lower concentrations but induced migration towards S1P at high concentrations, suggesting that the migration is specifically mediated by S1P1. Our results suggest that interactions mediated by S1P/S1P1 can modulate cell migration of T-LLL blasts similarly to their normal T cell precursor counterparts. Accordingly, immune intervention upon this ligand/receptor interaction may be envisioned as a potential therapeutic strategy for these malignancies.