The initial motive for undertaking this research, was a desire to better understand those factors which were said to affect the diffusion of ethnic foods. In attempting to develop the general methodology for this study, the author revisited seminal studies on diffusion of innovations, word-of-mouth, opinion leadership, and innovator/early adopter influence. During this process, the author discovered Feick and Price's (1987), emergent 'Market Maven' theory. Said to be distinctly different from opinion leaders and early adopters, market mavens were not only believed to have a higher awareness of general marketplace information, but also more source credibility than other word- of-mouth influencers. Employing a replication study approach, a telephone survey of 400 households in urban, suburban and rural north Bedfordshire was undertaken. The author found that the market maven construct was not a purely US phenomenon, but was also present in the UK. Developing further Feick and Price's (1987) preliminary investigations, this study confirmed that (in common with related opinion leadership studies), it had not been possible to identify market mavens using demographic/socio-economic variables. Whilst classifying market mavens remained problematic, the author was nonetheless able to confirm Feick and Price's (1987) earlier findings, that market mavens had an inherently increased propensity for general marketplace information gathering. As this behaviour was considered by the author to be unique to market mavens, the construct was employed to test those factors, said to affect ethnic food diffusion, with interesting, if largely inconclusive results. The author concluded, that the potential of the market maven construct in the diffusion of innovations process was significant, particularly as a conduit for internal word-of-mouth information in the business-to-business/industrial marketing context. In that situation, market mavens' heightened awareness of, and active search for, general marketplace information, would make them ideal targets for the type of marketing communication message that innovators and opinion leaders alike, reputedly ignore.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Hospitality Management / Kevin R. Roberts / Ethnic foods have gained in popularity and have become mainstream in the diet of most Americans. However, researchers have noted that ethnic food, specifically food served in ethnic restaurants, has been associated with foodborne outbreaks. Little has been done using the Social Cognitive Theory to predict food safety behaviors, especially in independent ethnic restaurants. The purpose of this study was to determine whether self-efficacy, self-regulation, outcome expectations, and environmental determinants are predictive of self-reported food safety behaviors in independent ethnic restaurants. Utilizing a thorough literature review and results of five focus group and group interviews, a questionnaire was developed. The questionnaire was translated to Chinese and Spanish and back-translated to English to ensure consistency. After pilot-testing, a multistage random sampling technique was utilized to collect data, targeting a total of 150 food handlers from independent Mexican and Chinese restaurants. A total of 204 food handlers responded, but due to incomplete data or responses from non-food handlers, 201 responses were usable for a response rate of 80.4%. A multiple regression analysis investigated the prediction of food safety behavioral intentions based on the respondents’ self-efficacy, self-regulation, outcome expectations, and environmental determinants and found the model was significant (F = 75.246, p = 0.002). The significant independent variables in the model were self-regulation (β = 0.467, p = 0.001), environmental determinants (β = 0.181, p = 0.011), and outcome expectations (β = 0.152, p = 0.018), which explained about 60.6 % of the variance in food safety behavioral intentions. Self-efficacy was not significant (β = 0.078, p = 0.219). A mediation analysis showed that behavioral intentions are a significant mediator of the relationships between self-efficacy and self-reported food safety behaviors (b = 0.24, CI [0.161, 0.336], self-regulation and self-reported food safety behaviors (b = 0.252, CI [0.155, 0.366]), outcome expectations and self-reported food safety behaviors (b = 0.355, CI [0.247, 0.469]), and environmental determinants and self-reported food safety behaviors (b = 0.269, CI [0.172, 0.393]). Implications, limitations, and direction for future research were discussed.

<p></p><p><strong>Title:</strong> Competitive Strategies of Ethnic Food Companies in Sweden</p><p><strong>Authors:</strong> Düriye Canbaz – Aktuğ Yılmaz</p><p><strong>Instructor:</strong> Prafulla Acharya</p><p><strong>Course:</strong> EFO 705-Master Thesis</p><p><strong>Date:</strong> 25/05/2009</p><p><strong>Introduction:</strong> Sweden has a population of 9.1 million habitants and approximately 1.2 million people or 13% of the Swedish population consists of foreign nationalities or individuals born abroad. If the second generation is included in the consideration then the number increases to approximately 1.6 million which in the end corresponds to over 17% of the total population. (Market Brief Focus on Swedish Market, 2007, p.3) Under such circumstances, it is not unusual to see demand for ethnic food. During the last few years, ethnic food products have experienced a very positive market trend and the development is a reflection of both the increasing number of immigrants and native Swedes increasing interest in ethnic foods. (Ibid, p.6) “<em>Several years ago, immigrants constituted the principal consumer group of ethnic foods, but this has changed over the years</em>” that “<em>Swedish consumers are now more and more regarded as the main consumer group of ethnic foods</em>” (Ibid, p.6) Under such circumstances, the competition among the companies rise that companies try to raise their level of competitiveness. Doing so, companies adopt some strategies and develop some competences to outperform the rivals.</p><p><strong>Problem: </strong>How to compete in Swedish ethnic food stuff industry?</p><p>Sub questions;</p><p>-          What competitive strategies should be carried out?</p><p>-          What competences and competitive advantages should be developed?</p><p> </p><p><strong>Purpose:</strong> The aim of this thesis is to identify the competitive strategies of existent ethnic food stuff companies in Sweden in order to set a success model for the new entrants as a guideline. To be able to set a clear model the distinctive competences of the companies on which strategies are constructed will be identified.</p><p><strong>Method: </strong>In this dissertation we used both primary and the secondary data. The primary data that we used consists of interviews that we made with the informants from the ethnic food stuff companies and retailers. The secondary data that is used in the thesis generally consists of resources that are relevant and valid such as reports from Swedish Chambers, European Union and reports from United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as well as some dissertations from Swedish universities.</p><p><strong>Analysis and Conclusions: </strong>In Swedish ethnic food market both market structure and companies’ resources play important role in the shaping of competitive strategies. Case companies Laroc AB and Sevan AB follows the product differentiation strategy. Companies differentiate in quality, price and product variety. Also, they follow special strategies in branding and target different consumers groups. We recommend to new entrants to follow Sevan’s strategy in the short time which is providing well known brands from Middle Eastern region. However, in the long run, we recommend them to follow Laroc’s strategy which is generally based on creating its own brand name. One of the other recommendations we have for the new entrants is working with the independent stores that are not explored by the other ethnic food stuff companies. Another recommendation that we have for new entrants is the processed food and ready meal products. In the market for Middle Eastern processed food and ready meal products, there is a limited range of products. Ethnic food market is changing, as the only thing that does not change is change itself. Ethnic food is losing its ethnicity as it gets appreciated by the consumers and embeds into culture. Thus, both current competitors and new entrants should be aware of the changes and orient themselves accordingly.</p><p> </p>

Title: Competitive Strategies of Ethnic Food Companies in Sweden Authors: Düriye Canbaz – Aktuğ Yılmaz Instructor: Prafulla Acharya Course: EFO 705-Master Thesis Date: 25/05/2009 Introduction: Sweden has a population of 9.1 million habitants and approximately 1.2 million people or 13% of the Swedish population consists of foreign nationalities or individuals born abroad. If the second generation is included in the consideration then the number increases to approximately 1.6 million which in the end corresponds to over 17% of the total population. (Market Brief Focus on Swedish Market, 2007, p.3) Under such circumstances, it is not unusual to see demand for ethnic food. During the last few years, ethnic food products have experienced a very positive market trend and the development is a reflection of both the increasing number of immigrants and native Swedes increasing interest in ethnic foods. (Ibid, p.6) “Several years ago, immigrants constituted the principal consumer group of ethnic foods, but this has changed over the years” that “Swedish consumers are now more and more regarded as the main consumer group of ethnic foods” (Ibid, p.6) Under such circumstances, the competition among the companies rise that companies try to raise their level of competitiveness. Doing so, companies adopt some strategies and develop some competences to outperform the rivals. Problem: How to compete in Swedish ethnic food stuff industry? Sub questions; -          What competitive strategies should be carried out? -          What competences and competitive advantages should be developed?   Purpose: The aim of this thesis is to identify the competitive strategies of existent ethnic food stuff companies in Sweden in order to set a success model for the new entrants as a guideline. To be able to set a clear model the distinctive competences of the companies on which strategies are constructed will be identified. Method: In this dissertation we used both primary and the secondary data. The primary data that we used consists of interviews that we made with the informants from the ethnic food stuff companies and retailers. The secondary data that is used in the thesis generally consists of resources that are relevant and valid such as reports from Swedish Chambers, European Union and reports from United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as well as some dissertations from Swedish universities. Analysis and Conclusions: In Swedish ethnic food market both market structure and companies’ resources play important role in the shaping of competitive strategies. Case companies Laroc AB and Sevan AB follows the product differentiation strategy. Companies differentiate in quality, price and product variety. Also, they follow special strategies in branding and target different consumers groups. We recommend to new entrants to follow Sevan’s strategy in the short time which is providing well known brands from Middle Eastern region. However, in the long run, we recommend them to follow Laroc’s strategy which is generally based on creating its own brand name. One of the other recommendations we have for the new entrants is working with the independent stores that are not explored by the other ethnic food stuff companies. Another recommendation that we have for new entrants is the processed food and ready meal products. In the market for Middle Eastern processed food and ready meal products, there is a limited range of products. Ethnic food market is changing, as the only thing that does not change is change itself. Ethnic food is losing its ethnicity as it gets appreciated by the consumers and embeds into culture. Thus, both current competitors and new entrants should be aware of the changes and orient themselves accordingly.

abstract: Eat Your Heart Out is a visually rich qualitative ethnic food research that examines consumption, production, and distribution practices transnationally. Through the example of Mumbai’s street foods, the study aims to discover how design participates in fashioning the street food experiences locally and globally. Food is an important cultural artifact in the world. However, past research in design suggests that the discipline has mainly focused on food as a catalyst for creativity and imagination or as a tool to examine materialistic, economical, sensorial, and emotional connections. Studying the user-focused involvement in the creation of food artifacts and focusing on cultural, global, and historical aspects of that participation are important to address the gaps in the knowledge required to solve increasingly “wicked problems” (Buchanan, 1992; Rittel, 1971). To achieve this goal, Eat Your Heart Out implemented a comparative practice-based study of the Indian street foods in Mumbai and Phoenix to examine consumption, production, and distribution practices at both places. The methodological design was highly multi-disciplinary in nature and included rapid ethnographic assessment, interviews, visual research, and a generative method of co-creation. The study revealed that street foods as cultural artifacts were deeply rooted in specific traditional values specific to the context, which significantly influenced personal and communal consumption, production, and distribution practices of Indian street foods in Mumbai and Phoenix. The values of standardization, formality, and higher food regulation practices limited the diversity and radically transformed the central values of Mumbai’s street foods when the foods re-territorialized in Phoenix. This resulted in lowering the consumption. Eat Your Heart Out presents cultural and practical insights into the interactions between contexts, artifacts, practices, and participants. Eat Your Heart Out recommends new frameworks of correlation for various consumption and production practices and suggests how street food artifacts alter when they move across cultures. Such knowledge can be valuable for similar ethnic food culture studies and the development of innovative research tools incorporating transnational and multidisciplinary methods in the future. On a broader scope, Eat Your Heart Out provides a unique opportunity to study a culture that has not been examined by scholars much in the past. It also focuses on gaining knowledge about ethnic culinary practices of Indian immigrants in the United States and encouraging enhanced cross-cultural acceptance. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Design, Environment and the Arts 2018

Portland, OR, is the site of a unique urban food cart phenomenon that provides opportunities for small business ownership and access points for culturally specific food for the city's foreign-born and minority populations. Known as a "foodie haven," Portland also has an active sustainable food movement with engaged citizens and support from city and regional policies aimed at significantly increasing the consumption of local food. To date, there have been no in-depth studies on the sourcing habits of Portland food cart owners and whether or not these street-level actors are involved in the area's local alternative food movements (AFNs). The current understanding of the Portland food cart phenomenon is based on studies that have focused on carts and pods located in the central business district and "inner-ring" areas of the city. Areas beyond these locations (defined as Eastern Portland) are currently home to the majority of the city's growing foreign-born and minority populations. This thesis uses a situational analysis framework to explore the food supply practices of ethnic food cart owners operating in Eastern Portland cart pods. I investigate the feasibility of purchasing locally grown ingredients for use in ethnic cuisines and the degree to which cart owners incorporate the region's prevailing locavore ethics into their everyday culinary practices. Findings from this inquiry suggest that ethnic cart owners in Eastern Portland have a range of habitus, or personal dispositions and embodied knowledge, that is reflected in how they perceive the benefits of and barriers to "buying local" and the extent (if any) that they engage with AFNs in the Portland area. I assert that ethnic food cart owners in Eastern Portland are performing multiple community roles by providing access points for culturally specific cuisines for their particular ethnic groups, while also offering exotic experiences to other residents and tourists alike. I discuss variations within the food cart phenomenon itself by highlighting the differences in design, amenities, types of access, and neighborhood customer bases of cart pods located in Eastern Portland. Finally, I discuss future research directions for understanding the dynamics of food supply chains in small-scale, direct-to-vendor relationships and the implications for local and regional food sustainability policy goals.

Ethnic food markets and restaurants are the main source of immigrants’ traditional foods in South Africa. Despite this, the actual availability and accessibility of ethnic foods from the ethnic food markets and restaurants has not been investigated. Furthermore, factors that influence the role of ethnic foods in the diets of immigrants, like perceptions of Sub-Saharan Immigrants towards South Africa food culture, and the safety of ethnic foods have not been established. Although a number of studies have been conducted on the identification of microbial hazards of cooked food in the informal sector, none have been conducted on ethnic foods of Sub-Saharan Immigrants. Aim and objectives The aim of this study was to assess the availability and accessibility of Sub-Saharan African immigrants’ traditional food from ethnic food markets, shops and restaurants, establish immigrants’ perceptions towards South African’s food culture, and determine predictors of contamination of selected cooked food sold in the ethnic food markets, and restaurants. From this aim, eight objectives were formulated as follows: (i) describe the immigrants’ perceptions towards South Africa’s food culture, (ii) investigate the contribution of the ethnic food markets on the dietary patterns of immigrants, (iii) investigate the availability, and accessibility of the ethnic foods available in the ethnic food markets, and restaurants, (iv) document coping strategies adopted by immigrants when faced with shortage of their traditional foods or ingredients in South Africa (v) identify factors associated with a move away from their ethnic foods and adoption of South African foods, (vi) investigate the microbiological quality of selected cooked foods found in the ethnic food markets and restaurants, and (vii) investigate predictors of contamination of ethnic foods bought from the restaurants and markets. A cross-sectional research design using a mixed methods approach was adopted to achieve the objectives of this study. The mixed method employed three instruments, namely: questionnaire, checklist, and laboratory microbial analysis. The study was conducted in Tshwane and Johannesburg metropolitan municipalities. The study focused on two study populations: (i) immigrant households from West, East and Central Africa regions, and ii) entrepreneurs selling Sub-Saharan ethnic ready-to-eat (RTE) foods. The snowball sampling method was adopted to sample both study populations. A total of one hundred and ninety four (n=194) women and forty (n=40) entrepreneurs who met the inclusion criteria and agreed to participate were included in the study. A checklist was employed to assess restaurants and vending sites. Two samples of RTE ethnic foods were collected from each entrepreneur and submitted to the microbiology laboratory at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR). Data obtained from the questionnaire, checklist and microbial analysis were analysed, and descriptive statistics were presented as tables and figures. Multivariable and binary logistic regression models were fitted to the data to assess predictors of adoption and contamination respectively. Results Ethnic foods still featured prominently in the diets of immigrants, with only 7.7 % (n=15) indicating that they strictly followed a South African diet. Ethnic food markets are the main sources of ethnic foods for immigrants living in Gauteng. Efforts to maintain ethnic diets by Sub-Saharan immigrants resident in South Africa are hindered by factors such as unaffordability (39.2%;n=76) and unavailability (25.3%; n=49) of their ethnic foods. Meanwhile, relying on less preferred food (38.7%; n=75) and replacing unavailable ingredients with similar ingredients (37.6%; n=73%) were identified as two main coping strategies that are adopted by immigrants when facing unavailability of their traditional food ingredients. Four patterns of dietary acculturation were identified, namely, strict continuity with traditional foods (21.6%; n=42), very limited adoption (21.1 %; n=39), limited adoption (50.5%; n=98) and complete adoption (7.7%; n=15) of South African foods. The following were the most common food items that the respondents tended to adopt: pap (84.5%; n=164); fried potato chips (43.8%; n=85); cold drinks (42.8%; n=83); fast foods (37.6%; n=73); sphathlo (30.9%; n=60); and vetkoek (30.4%; n=59). Four factors that were associated with adoption of South African foods included:  spending R2500-R3499 (OR 3.34; p=0.017) and 3500-4500 (OR 3.99; p=0.030) on food,  residing in the country between 3-6 years (OR 5.16; p=0.001),  earning between 5000-10 000 (OR 0.52; p=0.040) and >R11 000 (OR 0.380; p=0.057), and  being in part-time/temporary employment (OR 5.85; p=0.025). The majority of the ethnic food entrepreneurs were West Africans (70%; n=28), belonging mainly to the 30-49 years old age group (88%; n=35). Over 35%% (n=14) of the entrepreneurs indicated that they had completed high school education, while 42.5% (n=17) had tertiary education. The majority (80%, n= 34) of vendors of ethnic foods did not have a certificate in food handling or hygiene practices. The majority (95%, n=38) of entrepreneurs operated in permanent structures with ceilings and walls. A majority (95%; n=38) also had access to tap water and flushing toilets. However, ownership of appliances such as thermometers (0%, n=0), microwaves (55%, n=22), and freezers (37.5%, n=15) was very low. There was also low adherence with regards to the following aspects: wearing of protective clothing such as caps (40%; n=24), apron (62.5%, n=25) and gloves (0%, n=0); not wearing jewellery (50%; n=20); keeping fingernails short and clean; and proper reheating of food. Samples contaminated with total viable counts above the threshold of satisfactory counts (<10⁵ CFU/g) was very high (71.3% , n=57). Over twenty percent (22.5%; n=18) of the food samples had unsatisfactory levels of coliforms (>10 ³ CFU/g), and 17.5% (n=14) had unsatisfactory levels (>3 CFU/g) of E. coli. Salmonella was observed in only 3.8 % (n=3) food samples. Being new in business (OR=0.010, p=.033), owning a freezer (OR .477; p= .052), not owning a microwave (OR .013, p=.074), and reheating per serving (OR .187, p=.048) were identified as significant drivers of contamination. Conclusion In the two metropolitans that were investigated only 40 vendors of ethnic foods could be identified. This number is too low to be able to supply the whole immigrant community with ethnic foods. Thus their role as a contributor to household food security is limited. As a result, although the majority of immigrants attempt to preserve their traditional diets, high ethnic food prices and unavailability of traditional ingredients forces them into bicultural eating patterns. Although bicultural eating patterns are supposed to protect against food insecurity, the adoption of unhealthy dietary habits and could render them vulnerable to food insecurity. Lack of knowledge of South Africa foods results in poor food choices. In the long run these unhealthy eating patterns could have negative implications choices. In the long run these unhealthy eating patterns could have negative implications on the nutritional health of immigrants and the health system of South Africa. Therefore, studies to identify foods with similar taste and nutritious ingredients could aid prevention of obesity and lifestyle diseases and inform culture-specific nutrition education programmes. The high number of entrepreneurs without training on food hygiene and handling practices limits the role of the ethnic restaurants in the food security of immigrants living in Gauteng, and food quality is thus compromised. Therefore, there is a need for targeted training programmes which cater for the unique needs of the ethnic entrepreneurs to enable them to play a meaningful role in ensuring that immigrants who want to maintain their food culture are food secure. These programmes should also address the poor handling and hygiene practices that were observed in this study. This could be done by emphasising the World Health Organization’s (WHO) five keys to safer food. Results of the food contamination indicate that entrepreneurs are able to produce safe food, (as supported by only moderate contamination levels of coliforms and E. coli, which also suggests low risk of environmental and enteric contaminants). However, if these concerns are not addressed immediately by proper training and monitoring, they could further compromise the role played by ethnic food markets in food security. Training and monitoring programmes should place more emphasis on the four factors that were identified as drivers of contamination / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / Ph. D. (Agriculture)

South Africa has over 19 500 different indigenous plant species. Most of these are of ethnobotanical significance and are still used by local rural communities as medicine, food and for making beverages. The relatively little research that has been conducted on indigenous plant species has focused mainly on their medicinal potential. However, in view of the rapidly growing size of the global and local beverage industry and their constant search for new products, beverage-making indigenous plant species may have commercial development potential. To date, no detailed studies have been conducted on these plants, especially in the species-rich Limpopo province. The aim of this study was, therefore to evaluate the potential of indigenous plants for commercial beverage production. In order to achieve this, a survey was conducted in the Limpopo province to identify beverage-making plants and to document beverage preparation methods. Selected beverages were analysed and evaluated for their nutrient and sensory characteristics and a market product acceptability survey was conducted to identify those beverages with the greatest potential for development. Sixty three different beverage-plant species were identified in three study areas within the Limpopo province. These were used for the preparation of teas, fruit juices and alcoholic beverages. Plants that received further research attention were selected on the basis of their status as indigenous plants, frequency of use, nature of harvesting methods and availability. Some of the selected beverages were found to be rich in nutrients, especially with respect to vitamin C and mineral content. Furthermore, sensory analyses and market surveys indicated that four species, namely, Doyvalis caffra, Garcinia livingstonei, Grewia flavescens and Englerophytum magalismontanum have potential for further development for the beverage industry while Athrixia phylicoides has commercialisation potential as a herbal tea. However, further research is required to improve and refine preparation methods and to ensure compliance with quality standards. The availability of sufficient plant material for the industry must also be ensured. This research has indicated that South African indigenous plants have untapped market potential for the beverage industry which, if developed sustainably, could contribute to economic growth of the rural parts of South Africa. / Environmental Sciences / D. Ed. (Environmental Management)

South Africa has over 19 500 different indigenous plant species. Most of these are of ethnobotanical significance and are still used by local rural communities as medicine, food and for making beverages. The relatively little research that has been conducted on indigenous plant species has focused mainly on their medicinal potential. However, in view of the rapidly growing size of the global and local beverage industry and their constant search for new products, beverage-making indigenous plant species may have commercial development potential. To date, no detailed studies have been conducted on these plants, especially in the species-rich Limpopo province. The aim of this study was, therefore to evaluate the potential of indigenous plants for commercial beverage production. In order to achieve this, a survey was conducted in the Limpopo province to identify beverage-making plants and to document beverage preparation methods. Selected beverages were analysed and evaluated for their nutrient and sensory characteristics and a market product acceptability survey was conducted to identify those beverages with the greatest potential for development. Sixty three different beverage-plant species were identified in three study areas within the Limpopo province. These were used for the preparation of teas, fruit juices and alcoholic beverages. Plants that received further research attention were selected on the basis of their status as indigenous plants, frequency of use, nature of harvesting methods and availability. Some of the selected beverages were found to be rich in nutrients, especially with respect to vitamin C and mineral content. Furthermore, sensory analyses and market surveys indicated that four species, namely, Doyvalis caffra, Garcinia livingstonei, Grewia flavescens and Englerophytum magalismontanum have potential for further development for the beverage industry while Athrixia phylicoides has commercialisation potential as a herbal tea. However, further research is required to improve and refine preparation methods and to ensure compliance with quality standards. The availability of sufficient plant material for the industry must also be ensured. This research has indicated that South African indigenous plants have untapped market potential for the beverage industry which, if developed sustainably, could contribute to economic growth of the rural parts of South Africa. / Environmental Sciences / D. Ed. (Environmental Management)