In this ethnobotanical study, an ethnoarchaeological approach was adopted for the archaeological implications of the importance of wild food plants and their dietary uses in the Neolithic and Chalcolithic Periods in Central Anatolia by exploring the dietary uses of these plants by the modern villagers of Konya Basin. The study was based on the indigenous knowledge of the modern villagers of Konya of managing wild food plant resource in their surroundings for the dietary uses. This knowledge was explored through ethnobotanical research strategies. The study was limited by both the research subject and the area for a better focus on the research. The geographical borders were limited to Central Anatolia as it included Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites with detailed archaeological investigations and it made a comparison available between different geographical zones. Because it was possible to study similar environments today in the Konya Basin, nine modern villages to collect ethnobotanical data were chosen from three different environmental zones in this area, which included wetland, forest and steppe zones. The wild fruit, nut and tuber species recovered from the archaeological excavations were selected for study in their current natural environments. The different strategies of harvesting, processing and storage local people used for the consumption of each plant species provided useful implications to archaeological recoveries.

Originally presented as the author's Thesis (doctoral)--University of Basel, 1990. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 327-336).

Based on ethnographic research conducted in the Exumas Cays, Bahamas, this thesis investigates how traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and conservation ethics are situated in place and integrated into cultural landscapes. This is illustrated using satellite imagery and ethnographic data to describe the TEK associated with kitchen gardens, plant-collecting areas, fishing grounds, farm fields and pastures within the traditional use areas of one Exumian settlement known as The Hermitage. By situating TEK in cultural landscapes, this thesis provides a more holistic representation of the interconnectedness between community, knowledge, practice, belief, place, and landscape. This thesis also includes discussions on the theoretical importance of linking TEK with place and landscape; the formation and role of conservation ethics in preserving places or resources in a local environment; and a description of an emerging theory in cultural ecology called environmental multiplicity, which argues for the resiliency of traditional social-ecological systems as a result of creating multiple subsistence strategies and webs of interdependent social relationships to guard against social and natural perturbations.

These four presentations were prepared for the Society for Applied Anthropology's annual meeting in 2012 in Baltimore, Maryland. These presentations present findings from the Solar PEIS Native American ethnographic study. / The Ethnographic Research team at BARA in the School of Anthropology, UofA has shifted to what we are calling “ethnography in bits and pieces” for situating American Indian cultural concerns. We wanted to provide essays that would more directly target the resources, places, and landscapes actually identified by tribal representatives during field work. We chose to negotiate the essays with the tribal representatives. We chose to have the essays follow the discussion of tribal cultural concerns and thus be directly responsive to those concerns. This session provides cases from three studies and assessment of this new methodology.

Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.) B.L. Burtt (Zingiberaceae), commonly known as wild ginger, is a highly sought after plant for use in traditional medicine in South Africa. Over-exploitation of this medicinal plant has resulted in regional extinction in the wild. As a result, there is great interest in the medicinal properties of S. aethiopicus, and as a plant for small scale cultivation to increase the supply for use in traditional medicine. Water, ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts were prepared from the leaves, rhizomes and roots of S. aethiopicus. These extracts were tested for in vitro anti-inflammatory activity in the cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) assays, and in the microdilution antibacterial assay. The aqueous extracts showed no significant prostaglandin synthesis inhibition in the COX-1 and COX-2 assays. The ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts of the leaves showed the highest levels of activity at a concentration of 250 µg ml¯¹ per test solution, in both the COX-1 and COX-2 assays. The ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts of the rhizomes and roots also had moderate levels of activity in the COX-1 assay. These results provide some evidence for the rational use of S. aethiopicus in traditional medicine for anti-inflammatory purposes. In the microdilution antibacterial assay, no inhibitory activity against the test bacteria was detected with the aqueous extracts. The ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts tested showed greater antibacterial activity at minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.78 to 3.13 mg ml¯¹ against the gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus) than the Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae). No distinct differences were observed between the ethanol and ethyl acetate extracts, or between the different plant parts. A serial extraction of S. aethiopicus rhizome material was conducted and the extracts were tested in the COX-1 assay and the microdilution assay as a preliminary investigation for a bulk extraction. The hexane and ethyl acetate extracts gave slightly higher COX-1 inhibition than the ethanol extract. No distinct differences were observed in the microdilution assay. A bulk ethyl acetate extract of S. aethiopicus rhizome material was prepared, yielding 6.3 g of a thin orange oil. Vacuum liquid chromatography (VLC) was used to fractionate ≈4 g of the extract. The VLC fractions were evaluated using thin layer chromatography (TLC) and a bioautographic assay, using S. aureus as a test organism. The fractions were also tested in the COX-1 assay. The bioautography revealed a number of compounds which exhibited antibacterial activity. Fraction C was purified further using preparative TLC, and 24.9 mg of a pure compound from R,0.54 (toluene:ethyl acetate 93:7) was isolated. The structure of the compound was elucidated from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra, and mass spectroscopy of the compound was also recorded. The compound was identified as the sesquiterpenoid furanoeremophil-2-en-1-one, which is structurally identical to the recently reported compound 4aαH-3,5α,8aβ-trimethyl-4,4a,9-tetrahydro-naphtho[2,3-b]-furan-8-one. The compound showed only a very minimal bacteriostatic effect in the microdilution assay. S. aethiopicus plants were harvested before and after seasonal senescence. Ethanol extracts were prepared from fresh or dried material of the leaves, rhizomes and roots, and tested in the COX-1 assay and the microdilution assay TLC fingerprints of the various extracts were also prepared. No noteworthy changes in COX-1 inhibition, due to senescence, were observed with extracts prepared from fresh material, although there did appear to be a slight decrease in activity in the α-roots and an increase in the β-roots after senescence (fresh and dry). A decrease in the antibacterial activity of the leaves and an increase in the antibacterial activity of the α-roots was observed after senescence. These results suggest that the time of harvest may only have a minimal influence on the degree of anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activity. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

Tropical African forests are thought to be declining due to human activity, resulting in serious threat to local communities and wildlife. The threatened status of populations of Juniperus procera and Olea africana was studied in Loliondo, Tanzania. Three hundred persons were interviewed in ten Maasai communities concerning tree utilization for fence and house construction, firewood, traditional medicine and gourd sterilization. By comparing the indices for 169 species, J. procera and O. africana usage was significantly higher than all other species (Kruskal-Wallis, chi2 = 15.3, DF = 2, p = 0.0005). Ninety-six percent of interviewees have witnessed local decline in J. procera and O. africana. In conjunction with interviews, ecological sampling was carried out in community forests to determine species status. The correlations of size class distributions are not typical of "healthy" plant populations. If current trends continue local extinction of J. procera and O. africana may occur.

This ethnobotanical project screened and evaluated the use of traditional medicine of the Cree Nation of Quebec as part of a study directed at preventing complications associated with Type 2 diabetes (T2D). Antidiabetic plants used by the Cree that treat T2D symptoms were identified. Quantitative ethnobotany and analysis of antioxidant activity were conducted. Results from Whapmagoostui were compared with those found in Mistissini and also the literature. Twenty-one plant species were cited during the survey. Although Cree medicine throughout Quebec and Canada is homogenous, geographical and vegetation gradients show some variations. Medicinal plants have better antioxidant potential than non-medicinal plants and have a higher phenolic content. Rankings based upon the ethnobotany, the bioassays and the quantitative tools showed positive correlations. This evidence supports the beneficial effects of Cree TM and medicinal plants selected by the Cree Nation in the prevention of T2D and its complications.

Eucomis (Family Hyacinthaceae) are deciduous geophytes with long, narrow leaves and erect, densely packed flower spikes. The bulbs are greatly valued in traditional medicine for the treatment a variety of ailments, and are thus heavily harvested for trade in South Africa's "muthi" markets. Eucomis species propagate relatively slowly from offsets and seed, and this, together with their over-utilization ethnopharmacologically, has led to their threatened status. This investigation focussed mainly on the study of the anti-inflammatory activity of plant extracts prepared from the leaves, bulbs and roots, and the development of suitable tissue culture protocols for the bulk propagation of the species under study. Common underlying symptoms in the majority of ailments treated with traditional remedies prepared from Eucomis species are pain and inflammation. Prostaglandins are the primary mediators of the body's response to pain and inflammation, and are formed from essential fatty acids found in cell membranes. This reaction is catalysed by cyclooxygenase, a membrane-associated enzyme occurring in two isoforms, COX-1 and COX-2. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) act by inhibiting the activity of COX. The use of commercially available COX-1 inhibitors is associated with side-effects, including gastric and renal damage. Selective COX-2 inhibitors do not have these undesired effects, and are thus potentially very valuable to the pharmaceutical industry. The relative inhibitory effects of different extracts of Eucomis species on the activities of purified cyclooxygenase enzyme preparations (COX-1 in sheep seminal vesicles, COX-2 in sheep placenta) were assessed. The COX-1 assay was used to screen extracts from 10 species of Eucomis and one hybrid species at a concentration of 250 μg mℓ ¯¹ in the assay. High levels of anti-inflammatory activity were exhibited by the ethanolic extracts prepared from the dried leaves, bulbs and roots. Aqueous extracts (screened at 500 μgmℓ ¯¹) showed much lower levels of activity. In general, the highest levels of anti-inflammatory activity were observed for the ethanol bulb and root extracts. Comparison of the activity of the bulb extracts from bulbs harvested in summer and winter revealed very little difference in COX-1 inhibitory activity. Eucomis extracts were separated using thin layer chromatography. The plates were developed in a solvent system of benzene : 1,4-dioxan : acetic acid, 90:25:4 and stained with anisaldehyde-sulphuric acid. The TLC fingerprints prepared from these extracts showed different chemical profiles for the leaf, bulb and root extracts, but many similarities between the different species. The position of the active R[f] fractions was determined and correlated with the TLC-fingerprints. The most widely utilized species medicinally, E. autumnalis subspecies autumnalis, was chosen for further investigation. The fluctuation of anti-inflammatory activity with season and physiological age was determined. Young plants were found to have high levels of COX-1 inhibitory activity, particularly in the leaves. As the plant matured, higher levels of activity were associated with the bulb and root extracts. The antiinflammatory activity of the leaf, bulb and root extracts varied slightly throughout the year, with the highest levels detected towards the end of the growing season, shortly before the onset of dormancy. This study of E. autumnalis autumnalis was extended to investigate the effects of environmental conditions on the levels of COX-1 inhibitory activity. The extent to which high temperature and light intensity, fertilization of the plants in summer with Kelpak preparations, and cold storage of the dry bulbs during winter, affected the levels of active compounds accumulated, was determined. Kelpak application decreased the anti-inflammatory activity of the leaf, bulb and root extracts, while high temperature / high light intensity had no significant effect on the COX-1 inhibitory activity of the leaf or bulb extracts. The root extract did show a significant increase in anti-inflammatory activity. Bulbs that were removed from the soil and stored at 10°C exhibited significantly higher COX-1 inhibitory activity than the control bulbs maintained in the soil. Higher COX-1 inhibition was observed in the leaf extracts from these plants when harvested half-way through the growing season. No significant difference was observed at this stage between the bulb and root extracts from the different treatments. Bioassay-guided fractionation (using the COX-1 assay) was used to isolate the active principle(s) in the bulb extract. The bulb material was subjected to serial extraction using a Soxhlet apparatus. The ethyl acetate fraction showed the highest levels of COX-1 inhibition, and this was further fractionated using a Sephadex LH-20 column and a solvent system of cyclohexane : dichloromethane : methanol (7:4:1). The most active fraction from this separation was then purified using semi-preparative TLC and HPLC. The primary compound eluting in this fraction had an IC₅₀ value of 14.4 μgmℓ ¯¹ in the COX-1 assay, and 30.5 μgmℓ ¯¹ in the COX-2 assay. This compound was tentatively characterized as a phenol ring attached to a conjugated hydrocarbon chain (with a molecular weight of 390), and was a potent COX-1 inhibitor. The COX-2 / COX-1 inhibitory ratio was calculated to be 2.1. A second, highly active compound, with IC₅₀ values of 25.7 μgmℓ ¯¹ and 21.8 μgmℓ ¯¹ in the COX-1 and COX-2 assays respectively, crystalized from one of the Sephadex LH-20 column fractions. This compound was identified as a spirostane-type triterpenoid, eucosterol, previously isolated from Eucomis species but not specifically linked to the pharmacological activity of the extracts. This compound showed COX-2 / COX-1 inhibitory ratio of 0.8, indicating that it was a selective COX-2 inhibitor. Two further compounds were identified from this extract, after crystallization from different fractions obtained from Sephadex LH-20 chromatography. These were both homoisoflavanones, 5,7-dihydroxy-6-methoxy-3-(4-methoxy benzyl)-chroman-4-one, and 5,7-dihydroxy-3-(4-methoxy benzyl)-chroman-4-one [eucomin], the latter having been isolated previously. The first compound exhibited very low levels of both COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition, and the second compound (eucomin) exhibited high COX-1, but low COX-2 inhibitory activity. The in vitro propagation of the genus Eucomis was undertaken primarily to provide a source of material for experimentation, and also to optimize this technique for the bulk production of plants for commercial and conservation purposes. Multiple shoot production was initiated from leaf explants, in all species studied. A Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium, supplemented with 100 mg ℓ ¯¹ myo-inositol, 20 g ℓ ¯¹ sucrose, and solidified with 2 g ℓ ¯¹ Gelrite® was used. The optimal hormone combination for shoot initiation in the majority of species was determined to be 1 mg ℓ ¯¹ NAA and 1 mg ℓ ¯¹ BA. Optimal root initiation was demonstrated on media supplemented with 1 mg ℓ ¯¹ IAA, IBA or NAA, depending on species. A continuous culture system using this protocol produced 25-30 plantlets per culture bottle, with 10-25 specimens per bottle available for acclimatization. To maximize plantlet survival, different support media used during the acclimatization process were necessary. Certain species responded best on a vermiculite medium, while perlite (which holds less water) was necessary for the optimal survival rate of other species. Acclimatized plantlets were repotted in a sand : soil mix (1:1). Further experimental work aimed to determine the factors affecting the accumulation of anti-inflammatory compounds in in vitro plantlets. Extracts prepared from in vitro plantlets showed high levels of COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitory activity, with a C0X-2/C0X-1 ratio of 1.1. High levels of sucrose (40 g ℓ ¯¹) significantly increased the number of shoots initiated, but had no effect on the anti-inflammatory activity. Low levels of sucrose (10 g ℓ ¯¹) led to a significant decrease in COX-1 inhibition. Changing the levels of nitrogen in the medium (but not the ratio of nitrate to ammonium ions) had no significant effect on the COX-1 inhibitory activity of the extracts. Callus was initiated from leaf explants and experiments were conducted to maximize callus proliferation. Optimal callus growth occurred on an MS medium supplemented with 100 mg ℓ ¯¹ myo-inositol, 30 g ℓ ¯¹ sucrose, 2 g ℓ ¯¹ Gelrite® , and a hormone combination of 10 mg ℓ ¯¹ 2,4-D and 2 mg ℓ ¯¹ kinetin. Callus cultures maintained in the dark grew best. Callus extracts tested in the COX assays (250 μgmℓ ¯¹) showed a higher level of COX-2 inhibition (69%) than COX-1 inhibition (46%). Lastly, the conclusive identification of the species under study was attempted, using DNA fingerprinting. Protocols were developed for the extraction of DNA from the leaves of Eucomis plants, and the optimization of the AP-PCR technique. Random sequence (10-base) oligonucleotide primers were screened, each primer used singly. Primers were selected on the basis that more than five distinct bands were detected. Differences were detected in the amplification products visualized using nondenaturing agarose gel electrophoresis stained with ethidium bromide. This work provides the basis for further studies into the phylogenetic relationships between the various species (and hybrids) of Eucomis. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

These four presentations were prepared for the Society for Applied Anthropology's annual meeting in March 2013 in Denver, CO. These presentations present findings from the Solar PEIS Native American ethnographic study. / The United States government is considering areas in the five states for the large-scale solar energy development. These solar energy zones (SEZs) contain important Native American resources ranging from traditional use plants, healing places, and trail networks. During the environmental impact assessment, Numic-speaking peoples shared with University of Arizona ethnographers their thoughts regarding cultural uses of the SEZ and associated resources and potential impacts. This session focuses on unique cultural resources and the cultural implications of solar energy development.

An understanding of the effects of harvest on wild plant populations is essential for discerning the ecological impacts of past and present human uses of wild species, and for conserving species which are currently overexploited. This dissertation builds on theories and methods to describe and predict the impacts of harvesting non-timber forest products (NTFP) through an ethnoecological study of the terrestrial bromeliad Aechmea magdalenae. A. magdalenae is harvested from the rainforests of South-eastern Mexico where it has a long history of exploitation. The fiber extracted from its leaves is used to embroider leather articles in an artwork known as piteado. The sustainable harvest of this species has been promoted in Mexico as a strategy to conserve forests and provide local people with a stable income. / A combination of demographic, ethnobotanical and participatory methods was used to quantify harvest strategies, measure their impacts on A. magdalenae populations, and assess potential for cultivation. The impacts of harvesting: (1) ramets used for forest plantations; (2) leaves and ramets; (3) and whole plants and ramets, were measured by comparing the dynamics of harvested and nonharvested populations. The demographic implications of variation in the ecological and human context of harvest were examined. The effects of variation in traditional management and traditional knowledge of this species were also quantified. / Analyses using matrix models indicate that primary forest populations harvested for their ramets are declining due to overexploitation. Secondary forest populations are tolerant to ramet harvest and show elevated rates of growth and vegetative propagation in wild and cultivated plants. High rates of fiber harvest have little impact on population growth rates and increase A. magdalenae's tolerance to ramet harvest. The economic and ecological implications of local harvesting strategies vary within regions as well as between regions with short and long histories of A. magdalenae management. A test of the accuracy of estimating maximum sustainable harvests using current approaches illustrates that these methods can lead to erroneous conclusions. / The results of this study are used to suggest improvements for approaches to assessing the impacts of NTFP harvest, for combining traditional ecological knowledge and science in management plans, and for using participatory ecological and ethnoecological research to promote conservation.