The membrane phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) is an important signaling molecule as substrate for the phospholipase C (PLC)-catalyzed formation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol, and by directly regulating e.g. ion-channels, the cytoskeleton and vesicle trafficking in various types of cells. The present studies provide insights into the regulation of PLC activity and the plasma membrane concentration of PIP2 in individual insulin-secreting cells. Real-time monitoring of plasma membrane PIP2 was performed with evanescent wave microscopy and the PIP2/IP3-binding pleckstrin-homology-domain from PLC-δ1 fused to GFP. It was demonstrated that membrane depolarization and voltage-dependent Ca2+ influx are sufficient to activate PLC. Rise of the glucose concentration triggered Ca2+-dependent activation of PLC. Simultaneous measurements of the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) demonstrated that oscillations of [Ca2+]i resulting from periodic influx induced cyclic activation of PLC. Activation of muscarinic receptors caused a biphasic PLC response with an initial peak enhanced by positive feedback by Ca2+ mobilized from intracellular stores, followed by sustained activity depending on store-operated Ca2+-entry. Activation of PLC by Ca2+ mobilized from intracellular stores was part of the Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release mechanism by which glucagon stimulates primary mouse pancreatic β-cells. Experiments in permeabilized cells demonstrated rapid turnover of PIP2 with t1/2 ~ 16s. ATP stimulated concentration-dependent synthesis of plasma membrane PIP2, counteracted by the ADP analogue ADPβS. RT-PCR analysis identified transcripts of 10 different phosphoinositide-kinases. The ATP-stimulated PIP2 formation was mediated by type II and III PI4-kinases as well as by PIP5-kinase Iβ. It is concluded that the PIP2 concentration in the plasma membrane is regulated by the ATP/ADP ratio and that its hydrolysis by PLC is tightly controlled by [Ca2+]i in insulin-secreting cells.

cAMP and Ca2+ are key regulators of exocytosis in many cells, including insulin-secreting pancreatic β-cells. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion from β-cells is pulsatile and driven by oscillations of the cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i), but little is known about the kinetics of cAMP signaling and the mechanisms of cAMP action. Evanescent wave microscopy and fluorescent translocation biosensors were used to monitor plasma membrane-related signaling events in single MIN6-cells and primary mouse β-cells. Glucose stimulation of insulin secretion resulted in pronounced oscillations of the membrane phospholipid PIP3 caused by autocrine activation of insulin receptors. Glucose also triggered oscillations of the sub-plasma membrane cAMP concentration ([cAMP]pm). These oscillations were preceded and enhanced by elevations of [Ca2+]i, but conditions raising cytoplasmic ATP triggered [cAMP]pm elevations without accompanying changes in [Ca2+]i. The [cAMP]pm oscillations were also synchronized with PIP3 oscillations and both signals were suppressed after inhibition of adenylyl cyclases. Protein kinase A (PKA) was important for promoting concomitant initial elevations of [cAMP]pm and [Ca2+]i, and PKA inhibitors diminished the PIP3 response when applied before glucose stimulation, but did not affect already manifested PIP3 oscillations. The glucose-induced PIP3 oscillations were markedly suppressed in cells treated with siRNA against the cAMP-dependent guanine nucleotide exchange factor Epac2. Pharmacological activation of Epac restored PIP3 responses after adenylyl cyclase or PKA inhibition. Glucose and other cAMP-elevating stimuli induced redistribution of fluorescence-tagged Epac2 from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane. This translocation was modulated by [Ca2+]i and depended on intact cyclic nucleotide-binding and Ras-association domains. In conclusion, glucose generates cAMP oscillations in β-cells via a concerted action of Ca2+ and metabolically generated ATP. The oscillations are important for the magnitude and kinetics of insulin secretion. While both protein kinase A and Epac is required for initiation of insulin secretion the cAMP-dependence of established pulsatility is mediated by Epac2.

Le cytosquelette de microtubule (MT) est essentiel dans de nombreux processus cellulaire. Il est notamment impliqué dans le trafic intracellulaire, la division cellulaire, la modification et le maintien de la forme de la cellule. En fonction du type cellulaire ou de son état de différenciation, les réseaux de MTs vont adopter des architectures différentes. Ces organisations sont définies par des contraintes géométriques intracellulaires et l'activité moléculaire de nombreuses protéines associées aux MTs (MAPs). Parmi ces protéines, des membres de la famille des MAP65s ont été identifiés. In vitro, elles forment des ponts entre les MTs pour les organiser en faisceaux. Le but de mon travail de thèse a été d'étudier in vitro le rôle de MAP65s dans l'auto-organisation d'un réseau de faisceaux de MTs. Dans un premier temps, j'ai mis au point un système biomimétique utilisant la technique de « micro-patterning » qui imposent une géométrie d'assemblage pour les MTs dans des limites qui se rapprochent de celles observées dans les cellules. Cette méthode permet de contrôler précisément l'assemblage des MTs à partir de zones dont les formes, la taille et la distribution des unes par rapport aux autres sont définies. Pour valider cette technique, j'ai reconstitué des réseaux qui miment des architectures cellulaires (i.e modules du fuseau mitotique). Dans un deuxième temps j'ai étudié le rôle de MAP65s dans l'auto-organisation de réseaux de faisceaux de MTs, et plus particulièrement l'étape de co-alignement entre MTs dynamiques et dispersés. J'ai montré que MAP65-1 de plante et son orthologue chez la levure, Ase1, diminuent fortement la longueur de persistance de MTs isolés ou organisés en faisceaux. Cet assouplissement leur permet de se déformer et donc de se co-aligner pour former des faisceaux lorsqu'ils se rencontrent à des angles de rencontre élevés. L'augmentation de flexibilité est du à l'interaction du domaine de liaison de MAP65-1/Ase1 avec la lattice des MTs. Ces résultats suggèrent que la diminution de la rigidité des MTs contrôle dans les cellules l'issue des évènements des rencontres entre MTs. De façon plus générale, la modulation des propriétés mécaniques des MTs par des MAPs représente un nouveau mécanisme pour réguler la plasticité des réseaux de MTs dans les cellules eucaryotes. / The microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton is essential for many cell processes, such as the intracellular trafficking, the cell division, and the cell morphogenesis. Depending on the cell type or on its differentiation state, the MT networks will adopt different architectures. These organizations are defined by intracellular geometric constraints and the regulation of the acticity of many MT associated proteins (MAPs). Among these proteins, we get a particular interest in MAP65s family that crosslink MTs to organize them into bundles. The aim of my thesis was to study in vitro the role of MAP65s in the self-organization of MT bundles in particular networks. As a first step, I developed a biomimetic system using the micro-patterning procedure which imposes a MT assembly geometry within limits close to those observed in cells. This method allows to precisely control the MT assembly from micro-patterns with define shape, size and spatial distribution. In order to validate this technic, I reconstituted MT networks which mimic cellular architecture (i.e mitotic spindle modules). In a second time, I studied the role of major MT cross-linkers that are members of the MAP65 family in the formation of MT bundles, particularly the step of MT co-aligment after encountering of dynamic growing MTs. I found that plant MAP65-1 and its yeast ortholog, Ase1, lower the global rigidity of single MTs and MT bundles. This increase in MT flexibility is directly caused by interactions between the MAP65 MT-binding domain and the MT lattice. These data suggest that MT softening by MAP65 controls the issue of MT encounters, so that self-organized ordered MT bundles are formed in living cells. In a more general way, the modulation of MT mechanical propreties by MAPs represent a new mecanism to regulate MT networks plasticity in eukaryote cells.

AtMAP65-4 est une protéine associée aux microtubules appartenant à la famille des AtMAP65s qui compte 9 membres identifiés chez Arabidopsis thaliana. Ces protéines appartiennent à une famille conservée au cours de l'évolution, les MAP65s. Ainsi, des protéines homologues sont présentes chez de mammifères (PRC1), chez la levure (Ase1p) ou chez la drosophile (FEO). Jusqu'ici l'étude des propriétés moléculaires et fonctionnelles des AtMAP65s s'est portée essentiellement sur l'étude d'AtMAP65-1 et AtMAP65-5. La principale caractéristique de ces protéines est d'induire la formation de faisceaux de microtubules in vitro. La distribution des AtMAP65s in vivo est très régulée, celle-ci sont localisées avec des réseaux des microtubules bien définis. Ainsi, leur rôle supposé est de mettre en place ces réseaux puis de participer à leur maintient. La localisation d'AtMAP65-4 apparait comme très intéressante car elle est strictement associée avec les microtubules du fuseau mitotique. D'après les résultats obtenus au cours de ce travail, nous avons suggéré que la fonction in vivo d'AtMAP65-4 est de participer à la mise en place et au maintient des microtubules en faisceaux dans les fibres kinétochoriennes lors de la division cellulaire. Lors d'une étude in vitro nous avons montré qu'AtMAP65-4 modifie les paramètres dynamiques de polymérisation des microtubules. Outre sa capacité à former des faisceaux, AtMAP65-4 permet une croissance régulière des microtubules au sein des faisceaux qu'elle induit. Le mécanisme d'action de la MAP à l'échelle moléculaire a été analysé à travers une étude bioinformatique où nous avons modélisé l'activité d'AtMAP65-4. Les données obtenues montrent qu'AtMAP65-4 peut bloquer les évènements de dépolymérisation des microtubules. Par ailleurs, l'activité d'AtMAP65-4 pourrait être régulée in vivo par des modifications post traductionnelles. En effet, nous avons montré et étudié l'effet de la phosphorylation d'AtMAP65-4 par les kinases Auroras. Cette phosphorylation pourrait être impliquée dans la régulation de l'activité d'AtMAP65-4 au cours de la mitose. / AtMAP65-4 is a microtubule-associated protein belonging to the AtMAP65s family that comprises 9 members identified in Arabidopsis thaliana. These proteins belong to a family conserved during evolution, MAP65s. Thus, homologous proteins are present in mammals (PRC1), in yeast (Ase1p) or Drosophila (FEO). So far the study of molecular properties and functional AtMAP65s has focused mainly on AtMAP65-1 and AtMAP65-5. The main feature of these proteins is to induce the formation of microtubule bundles in vitro. In vivo, these AtMAP65s are localized with subsets of microtubule bundles as they are suggested to play a role in establishing and maintaining these networks. From the results we obtained on AtMAP65-4 properties during this work such as the in vivo localization, biochemical properties and functional effetc on the MT polymerization, we suggested that the in vivo function of AtMAP65-4 is involved in setting up and maintaining microtubule bundles within kinetochore fibers during cell division. In vitro studies allowed us to show that AtMAP65-4 changes the dynamic parameters of microtubule. In addition to its ability to form bundles, AtMAP65-4 allows steady growth of microtubules in bundles it induces. The mechanism of action of the MAP at the molecular level was analyzed through a bioinformatics study where we modeled the activity of AtMAP65-4 and concluded that it could block the depolymerization events. Moreover, the activity of AtMAP65-4 could be regulated in vivo by post-translational modifications. Indeed, we have shown that AtMAP65-4 is phosphorylated by Aurora kinases in vitro. The effect of this phosphorylation during mitosis is under investigation.

No description available.