Working memory is a mental system that is related to cognitive control and higher cognition. Although the topic of working memory is well researched, there is a great deal of debate about the mechanisms that drive individual differences in working memory capacity. Moreover, little is known about the direct relationships between different types of working memory tasks. The present study uses structural equation modeling to examine three varieties of working memory task: The complex span, running memory span, and visual arrays. It is found that, while complex and running span performance is directly predicted by immediate memory and retrieval from long-term memory, visual arrays is directly predicted by attention control. Despite these differences, all tasks are found to be united by executive attention, which is conceptualized as an executive process that is apparent across several types of attention and memory task. A second analysis examines the relationship between working memory and general fluid intelligence. It is concluded that, while executive attention accounts for the largest portion of the correlation between working memory and fluid intelligence, immediate memory and retrieval from long term memory are also critical to explaining this relationship.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between language skills and the development of executive functions in a normative preschool population over a 3 year period. Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) was used to examine models of individual change and correlates of change in the growth of 7 executive skills in a sample of 39 children ages 3 to 5. Results of the analyses revealed significant positive linear growth trajectories over time for 5 of the 7 executive skills measured (p < .05). Maturation alone accounted for a significant amount of variance in nonverbal working memory (Block Span, Stanford Binet-5th Edition (SB-5)) and problem solving skills (Tower, NEPSY). Growth in verbal working memory (Memory for Sentences, SB-5) was predicted uniquely by initial receptive vocabulary (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test–3rd Edition) and oral language (Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language) skills, even after considering age. Language variables did not predict rate of change in the 6 other executive skills measured. Thus, the pattern of results extends previous cross-sectional research by documenting that executive skills grow systematically with age in individual children during the preschool period. Furthermore, results suggest that during the preschool years, language ability is an important predictor of growth in working memory for verbal information—a capacity associated both theoretically and empirically with the transition from other- to self-regulation in early childhood. Findings are discussed in relationship to the literature on school readiness and the development of self-regulation. Implications for future research and practice are also suggested.

This project examined whether the executive functions of set maintenance and switching, as assessed by neuropsychological testing, were predictors of set maintenance and switching within a more ecologically valid task that used metacognitive strategies during reading comprehension tasks as a framework for evaluation. Gaze times to key words during reading were used as an indirect measure of strategy use. A few significant relationships were found between set maintenance and set switching on the neuropsychological measures and the strategy learning and application tasks. Participants were more likely to switch to appropriate strategies in a situation in which they were given free choice of strategies to use, and in which characteristics of the text pulled for the use of a particular strategy. In contrast, participants were less consistent with expected strategy use when they had just learned a strategy and were asked explicitly to apply it to a text that did not pull for use of a particular strategy. Factors such as visual scanning, motor speed, working memory, and passage comprehension affected the relationship between executive functions and the more ecologically valid task.

This study examined the relation between executive functioning (EF) and risk taking in adolescents using a dual system approach. According to the dual system perspective adolescents are prone to engage in risky behaviors as a result of an imbalance between the cognitive control system and the affective system (Casey, Getz &amp; Galvan, 2008; Cohen, 2005; Steinberg, 2008; Van Leijenhorst et al., 2010). We investigated both the possible direct impact EF capacity has on risk taking as well as how the developmental trajectory of EF influences adolescent risk taking. 34 participants between 15-18 years of age from a non-clinical group carried out four computerized tasks. Two tasks measured risk taking, the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) and the Columbia Card Task (CCT) and two tasks measured EF, N-back and the Matrix Monitoring Task. The participants had earlier carried out similar EF tasks in 2004 and 2008. The results showed that risk taking tendencies correlated negatively with performance in the EF tasks. No correlation was found between developmental trajectories of EF and risk taking. An alternative explanation for this result is presented. Our findings indicate support for the dual system perspective and we discuss some practical implications of the dual system way of looking at risk taking.

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The aim of this study was to come to a better understanding of possible neuropsychological mechanisms underlying psychosocial well-being and therefore to determine whether a relationship between neuropsychological executive functions and psychosocial well-being does indeed exist. Research was conducted in the domains of neuropsychology and positive psychology. This thesis consists of three articles, namely I ) Neuropsychological executive functions and psychosocial well-being: A review, 2) Attentional switching and psychosocial! well-being, and 3) The relationship between generativity as neuropsychological process and psychosocial well-being. The first article argued the possibility of a relationship between neuropsychological and psychosocial aspects, with reference to a pluralistic ecosystems perspective, neuropsychological and other positive psychological theories, such as Miller's neuropsychodynamic model and Frederickson's broaden-and-build theory, as well as existing empirical studies. Numerous neuropsychological studies have indicated that the prefrontal cortex is involved in executive functions, with its main function to regulate both cognitive and affective functioning. Analyses of existing empirical studies indicated an established relationship between prefrontal lobe / executive / regulatory dysfunction and psychopathology, but also that the relationship between normal or optimal prefrontal executive functions and psychosocial well-being is still unclear. The first article concluded that evidence correlating neuropsychological functioning with human flourishing, or indicating possible neuropsychological mechanisms involved in psychosocial well-being, is sparse, presenting a serious lacuna in scientific knowledge. The following two articles focused on contributing to filling this lacuna. "Attentional switching and psychosocial well-being" and "The relationship between generativity, as neuropsychological process and psychosocial well-being" focused on attentional switching and generativity, as part of neuropsychological executive functions, as potential mechanisms associated with psychosocial well-being. These studies aimed to determine whether the capacity to switch attention, as measured by the Color Trails Test (CTT) and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and the capacity to generate novelty, as measured by the Controlled Verbal Fluency Task (CVFT) (Benton, 1967) and Uses of Objects Test (UOT) (Getzels & Jackson, 1962), are related to the degree of psychosocial well-being experienced. As part of the interdisciplinary POWIRS (Profiles of Obese Women with Insulin Resistance Syndrome) project, black African women (article 2 n=66; article 3 n=72) completed the above mentioned neuropsychological measures, as well as indices of psychosocial wellbeing, in a cross-sectional design. The psychosocial measures included the Affectometer (AFM) 2 (Kammann & Flett, 1983); Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) abbreviated version (Epstein & Meier, 1989); Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC- 29) (Antonovsky, 1987, 1993); The Fortitude Questionnaire (FORQ) (Pretorius, 1998); JAREL Spiritual Well-being Scale (SWS-H) (Hungelman et al., 1989); Psychological Well-being Scales (SPW-B) (Ryff & Singer, 1998); and the Cognitive Appraisal Questionnaire (CAQ) (Botha & Wissing, 2003). The main findings of these studies were hat the ease of attentional switching and generativity correlates statistically (p<0.5) and practically significantly with higher levels of psychosocial well-being. From a micro-deterministic perspective it can be concluded that frontal lobe executive functions may play a role in the regulation higher-order adjusting psychosocial functions related to quality of life. From a micro-deterministic perspective it can be concluded that psychosocial well-being, while being influenced by executive functions, may also influence the continuous development of neuropsychological executive functions. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

The aim of this study was to come to a better understanding of possible neuropsychological mechanisms underlying psychosocial well-being and therefore to determine whether a relationship between neuropsychological executive functions and psychosocial well-being does indeed exist. Research was conducted in the domains of neuropsychology and positive psychology. This thesis consists of three articles, namely I ) Neuropsychological executive functions and psychosocial well-being: A review, 2) Attentional switching and psychosocial! well-being, and 3) The relationship between generativity as neuropsychological process and psychosocial well-being. The first article argued the possibility of a relationship between neuropsychological and psychosocial aspects, with reference to a pluralistic ecosystems perspective, neuropsychological and other positive psychological theories, such as Miller's neuropsychodynamic model and Frederickson's broaden-and-build theory, as well as existing empirical studies. Numerous neuropsychological studies have indicated that the prefrontal cortex is involved in executive functions, with its main function to regulate both cognitive and affective functioning. Analyses of existing empirical studies indicated an established relationship between prefrontal lobe / executive / regulatory dysfunction and psychopathology, but also that the relationship between normal or optimal prefrontal executive functions and psychosocial well-being is still unclear. The first article concluded that evidence correlating neuropsychological functioning with human flourishing, or indicating possible neuropsychological mechanisms involved in psychosocial well-being, is sparse, presenting a serious lacuna in scientific knowledge. The following two articles focused on contributing to filling this lacuna. "Attentional switching and psychosocial well-being" and "The relationship between generativity, as neuropsychological process and psychosocial well-being" focused on attentional switching and generativity, as part of neuropsychological executive functions, as potential mechanisms associated with psychosocial well-being. These studies aimed to determine whether the capacity to switch attention, as measured by the Color Trails Test (CTT) and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and the capacity to generate novelty, as measured by the Controlled Verbal Fluency Task (CVFT) (Benton, 1967) and Uses of Objects Test (UOT) (Getzels & Jackson, 1962), are related to the degree of psychosocial well-being experienced. As part of the interdisciplinary POWIRS (Profiles of Obese Women with Insulin Resistance Syndrome) project, black African women (article 2 n=66; article 3 n=72) completed the above mentioned neuropsychological measures, as well as indices of psychosocial wellbeing, in a cross-sectional design. The psychosocial measures included the Affectometer (AFM) 2 (Kammann & Flett, 1983); Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) abbreviated version (Epstein & Meier, 1989); Sense of Coherence Scale (SOC- 29) (Antonovsky, 1987, 1993); The Fortitude Questionnaire (FORQ) (Pretorius, 1998); JAREL Spiritual Well-being Scale (SWS-H) (Hungelman et al., 1989); Psychological Well-being Scales (SPW-B) (Ryff & Singer, 1998); and the Cognitive Appraisal Questionnaire (CAQ) (Botha & Wissing, 2003). The main findings of these studies were hat the ease of attentional switching and generativity correlates statistically (p<0.5) and practically significantly with higher levels of psychosocial well-being. From a micro-deterministic perspective it can be concluded that frontal lobe executive functions may play a role in the regulation higher-order adjusting psychosocial functions related to quality of life. From a micro-deterministic perspective it can be concluded that psychosocial well-being, while being influenced by executive functions, may also influence the continuous development of neuropsychological executive functions. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

The evaluation of how Assistive Technologies for Cognition (ATC) serve their purpose in providing support for children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactive Disorder (AD/HD) is limited and it is not clear how to best support the cognitive functions in order to help the individual increase task performance in everyday life. This thesis sought to scrutinise how families with at least one child diagnosed with AD/HD incorporate ATCs in their daily life in order to cope with appurtenant difficulties. An online survey, answered by 92 caregivers for children with AD/HD, attended to the cognitive abilities in need of support, the usage of ATCs, and how ATCs supported the executive functions in everyday planning. The results reveal that children encounter difficulty in dealing with cognitive ability, executive functioning and causal inference when it comes to planning in everyday life situations, which relates to lower levels of independence. Executive functioning and causal inference is negatively correlated to number of symptoms of AD/HD. The ATC is not satisfactorily supporting the cognitive functions, which results in another person by default being the one who sets up the ATC, and the child merely follows the instruction. The results has been processed into a table containing concepts which is suggested to be considered both when developing, as well as evaluating, ATCs for children with AD/HD.

Background/Aim: During the past two decades, major advances in maternal-fetal medicine, neonatology, and the development of regionalized perinatal care have resulted in dramatic increases in survival rates, by more than 60%, of extremely immature (EI) infants born at less than 26 completed weeks of gestation, creating a new infant population. Studies of school-age outcomes in children with an extremely low birth weight of &lt; 1000 g, born in the1980s, indicated that these children had a substantially high prevalence of low-severity neuropsychological deficits, behavioral problems, and difficulties at school. Information on school-age outcomes of extremely preterm children born in the 1990s is sparse, and mainly restricted to the neurobehavioral and developmental outcome. The aim of this research was to investigate the comprehensive neurological, developmental, functional, and mental health status and health care needs of children born at 23-25 weeks of gestation in the 1990s, allowing a total view of the child in the context of the family, his peers, school, and the health care system. The ultimate aim was to obtain a clearer understanding of the functional capacities of these vulnerable children and the possibilities of ameliorative interventions, as a basis for planning and provision of services for this growing population. Methods: We studied 11-year-old children born from 1990 through 1992 before 26 completed weeks of gestation in all of Sweden. All had been evaluated at a corrected age of 36 months. Of 89 eligible children, 86 (97%) were studied at a mean age of 11 years. An equal number of children born at term served as controls. The following methods were used: 1) well validated, mailed questionnaires filled out by the parents, class teachers and the children themselves; 2) structured interviews were conducted with a parent or a primary caregiver; 3) review of pediatric case records and records from other specialist health care services; and 4) anthropometric measurements (length, weight, head circumference and body mass index) from birth to 11 years of age. The following domains were explored: current health status, growth attainment, mental health assessment, emotional well-being, adaptive functioning and social competencies, school performance, executive functions, and learning and language skills. Relations of socioeconomic background and of environmental and perinatal risk factors to the long-term outcome were evaluated. Results: EI children compared with the controls had significantly higher rates of specific diagnoses or disabilities including neurosensory impairment (15% vs 2%, respectively), asthma (20% vs 6%), poor motor skills (26% vs 3%), poor visual perception (21% vs 4%), poor learning skills (27% vs 3%),poor adaptive functioning (42% vs 9%), and poor academic performance (49% vs 7%). As a consequence of these disabilities, significantly more EI children than controls had chronic conditions, which included functional limitations (64% vs 11%), compensatory dependency needs (59% vs 25%), and services above those routinely required by children in general (67% vs 22%). Regarding growth attainment, EI children had significantly lower values for all three growth parameters (length, weight and head circumference) than the controls at 11 years. They showed a sharp decline in weight and height z scores up to 3 months’ corrected age, followed by good catch-up growth in both weight and height up to 11 years. EI children did not exhibit catch-up growth in head circumference after the first 6 months of life. Preterm birth and parental height were significant predictors of 11-year height, and group status (prematurity) correlated strongly with head circumference. Our results also suggest that the EI children had a significantly greater risk for poorer mental health and poorer emotional well-being than the control participants, including internalizing (anxiety/depression, withdrawn behavior and somatic complaints), and attention, social, and thought problems. No differences in externalizing problems were found between the EI cohort and controls. Multivariable analyses disclosed a number of significant predictors of behavioral adjustment: group status (EI vs control), family function, social risk, male gender, and presence of a chronic medical condition. Concerning school performance, more than half (59%) of our EI cohort were experiencing school difficulties and 15%, compared with 5% of the control children were attending special schools or having full-time special education. Despite fewer adaptive skills in the EI cohort these children were not different from the controls in respect to being happy and being positively adjusted in their day-to-day life. Compared with controls, EI children had a significantly increased risk for executive dysfunctions in most of the areas assessed (Attention control and Attention switching, Hypoactivity, Planning/organizing, and Working memory). EI children were also at increased risk for deficient skills in language tasks (comprehension, communication, and expression) and in the four standard measures of learning skills (reading/writing, math, general learning, and coping in learning). However, only a relatively small number of EI children exhibited severe impairments in executive or non-executive skills. Multivariate analyses revealed that prematurity, executive dysfunction and male gender were associated with poor learning skills. Conclusions and implications: Children born extremely immature have significantly greater health problems and special health care needs that require ongoing services through the school years. However, it is notable that very few children have severe impairments that curtail major activities of daily living. The overall results of this study are reassuring. Despite having an increased risk for mental health problems, executive dysfunctions and school difficulties, 85% of the EI children were in the mainstream schools and a majority were not having major adjustment difficulties. In terms of growth, most of our EI children showed good catch-up in late childhood and were within 2SD of their mean midparental height at 11 years of age. Although biological immaturity is associated with an increased risk for a substantial number of behavioral/emotional problems, improvement of the modifiable environmental factors will benefit the outcome in EI children. We also believe that knowledge of the course of development of psychopathological conditions from early childhood to adolescence and beyond is crucial for identifying the need for intervention and prevention strategies. Thus when there is evidence to suggest neuropsychological and behavioral or emotional problems, early identification and preventive measures might help families to manage these from an early stage. Our findings further suggest that current preterm follow-up programs might benefit from the addition of psychological and family services to traditional neurodevelopmental assessments, especially in the neonatal period and first years of life.