There is limited research pertaining to the effects of exercise on the behavior of children with autism. Previous researchers focused on exploring the dimensions of the exercise itself, leaving a functional account of the effects of exercise undetermined. There is recent evidence that exercise suppresses responses maintained by automatic reinforcement. The purpose of the present study was to better identify the relevant independent variable in such research and to assess if there were differential effects of exercise across functional response classes. The experimenter conducted a trial-based functional analysis and then implemented a sedentary or vigorous activity on alternating days to determine the impact of exercise on engagement, stereotypy, and challenging behavior. Results across functional response classes were variable as were data across individual sessions. There was a mean suppression of behavior maintained by nonsocial reinforcement during post-sedentary (4.3%) and post-exercise sessions (2.3%). A discussion of the role of matched stimulation and heart rate as a pertinent variable follows.

No description available.

The aim of these experiments was to investigate the effect of providing substrate in the form of CHO or fluid as water or a dilute glucose-electrolyte solution on the metabolic and circulatory changes during prolonged endurance exercise. It was hoped to establish the relative importance of fluid or substrate replacement in promoting endurance capacity. Subjects exercised significantly longer on a cycle ergometer when the glucose-electrolyte solution was given compared with the administration of large amounts of glucose or fructose in the form of polymer solutions. The effectiveness of the glucose-electrolyte solution in prolonging exercise time to exhaustion was not shown during exercise at high (33oC) and low (2oC) ambient temperatures. Fluid balance does not seem to be a priority during exercise at low ambient temperatures and exercise time in the heat was too short for the possible benefits of fluid replacement to occur. During 2h of moderate exercise (50% VO2max) at a high ambient temperature, the ingestion of the glucose-electrolyte solution was associated with the maintenance of plasma volume and minimal physiological disturbances which may limit performance. There was a tendency toward greater rectal temperatures and higher heart rates during rehydration with a hypertonic glucose polymer solution. The effect of fluid and substrate replacement during exercise performed over a range of intensities (50 - 70% VO2max) was investigated. It was suggested that the ingestion of a glucose polymer solution, in an attempt to provide glucose to the working muscle, may compromise fluid balance. The usefulness of carbohydrate feeding during prolonged exercise of moderate intensity where thermoregulation is a priority is questionable. The maintenance of plasma volume through the replacement of fluid losses during exercise seems to be the priority in the promotion of endurance capacity rather than the provision of carbohydrate.

Thesis (Sc.D.)--Boston University / PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / The c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 intracellular signaling cascades are mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways that are activated in mammalian cells by a variety of stressors, including proinflammatory cytokines, osmotic shock, and shear stress. The purpose of this dissertation research was to examine the effect of injury-producing exercise on JNK and p38 activities in human skeletal muscle and to determine whether mechanical stress is a primary stimulator of JNK and p38 activities with contraction. Twelve healthy subjects (7M/5F) completed maximal concentric or eccentric knee extensions on an isokinetic dynamometer (10 sets, 10 reps). Needle biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis muscle 24 h before exercise, immediately post-exercise, and 6 h post-exercise. While both forms of exercise increased JNK activity immediately post-exercise, eccentric contractions resulted in a much higher activation (15-fold vs. 4-fold increase above basal for eccentric and concentric, respectively). By 6 h post-exercise, JNK activity decreased back to baseline values. In a separate study, 14 male subjects completed a 42.2 km marathon. Biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis muscle 10 days prior to the marathon, immediately following the race, and 1, 3, and 5 days after the race. JNK activity increased 7-fold over basal immediately postexercise, but decreased back to basal 1, 3, and 5 days after the exercise. The activity of p38y also was increased and decreased in a similar pattern. However, no regulation was observed for p38α. In a third study, the effects of contraction and static stretch on JNK activity and p38 phosphorylation were determined in the rat soleus muscle in vitro. Static stretch dramatically increased JNK activity and p38 phosphorylation, whereas isometric contraction resulted in much smaller increases in JNK activity and p38 phosphorylation. The regulation of focal adhesion proteins also was examined following both exercise and contraction. The work presented in this thesis demonstrates that injury-producing exercise results in the marked activation of the JNK and p38 stress-activated protein kinases and provides evidence that mechanical stress may be a major contributor to increases in JNK and p38 activities observed following contraction in rat and human skeletal muscle. / 2031-01-01

A research report submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Physiotherapy Johannesburg, 2017 / This was a qualitative study design using in-depth caregiver interviews. Ethical clearance was applied for at the University of the Witwatersrand and permission was also obtained from hospital management where the study took place before the commencement of the research project. Interviews were conducted with the caregivers of patients discharged from the hospital where the study took place, who met the inclusion criteria. The interviews took place at the hospital three months post discharge. Verbal and written consent was obtained from all the stroke survivors and caregivers for participation and audio recording of the interviews. The researcher collected all the demographic data from the stroke survivors including BI score. The in-depth interview was conducted by the researcher using an interview schedule. The interview was informal, with open- ended questions, carried out in a conversational style in the participants’ choice of language Afrikaans, English or Setswana. Initially the interview started with structured questions and probing questions followed as necessary for more information or clarification thereof. Audio records and field notes were made during the interview by the researcher. The audio records were transcribed and translated word for word afterwards by the researcher. The data was analysed by the researcher and a second analyser using the general inductive approach and consisted of five main steps. Results: Seven interviews were conducted. The average age of the stroke survivors was 55.8 (±15.03) years, four were female and three were male, five had right sided strokes and two left sided. The average BI score was 47.1%. The average age of the caregivers was 47.8 years (±13.96) years, five were female and two were male all of them were closely related family members. Three were unemployed, two self-employed, one employed and one a pensioner. The most common enablers of adherence to home exercise programmes are: self –motivation, external motivation from friends and family, daily routine, spirituality, carers’ ‘attitudes and desire’ and knowledge. The most common barriers of adherence to home exercise programmes are: general health issues, other responsibilities, lack of family and social support, caregiver burden and stress, low self-efficacy and mood, and fear of falling. Conclusion: It is evident from this study that adherence to home exercise programmes is multifactorial and does not only relate to the stroke survivor alone. Caregivers have a lot of responsibilities and experience emotional strain and burden and this has an influence on stroke survivors’ adherence to home exercise programmes as they rely upon caregivers for assistance. When addressing adherence both the stroke survivor and the caregivers needs to be considered. Being aware of the potential enablers and barriers of adherence to home exercise programmes can give health care professionals insight in how to optimise adherence and possibly improve functional ability and the quality of life of stroke survivors. / MT2017

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Johannesburg, 2014 / Background: Individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are living longer due to effective disease management with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). International literature suggest that mortality in people living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHA) is shifting to non-AIDS defining diseases such as cardiovascular disease. It is suggested that PLWHA are at an increased risk for developing ischemic heart disease (IHD) due to HIV mediated processes, traditional risk factors of IHD and factors related to HAART exposure. In the South African context risk factors for IHD are reported to be on the increase in the general population but published information regarding the risk factors for IHD in PLWHA is limited. Human immunodeficiency virus infection is a significant Sub-Saharan Africa challenge with 5.26 million people living in South Africa (SA) reported to be infected with HIV. Only Swaziland, Lesotho and Botswana report higher prevalence rates of HIV infection. Due to the high prevalence rate of HIV in SA, the reported increase in risk factors for IHD in the general population and the suggested increased risk for IHD in PLWHA, screening these risk factors in PLWHA in the South African context may be necessary. Innovative prevention strategies for IHD are also required to manage the risk for IHD in PLWHA in SA due to the high prevalence rate. A home-based education and pedometer walking programme could be such a strategy. The aims of the research project were therefore firstly to screen selected risk factors for IHD in PLWHA attending a primary care clinic and secondly to evaluate said individuals’ self-perception regarding their risk of IHD. Lastly the project set out to determine the effects of an individualised education and home-based pedometer walking programme on the risk of IHD as a potential prevention management strategy for IHD in PLWHA. Methodology: The research project consisted of four studies divided into phase 1 (study 1, 2, 3) and phase 2 (study 4). The study aims, methods and data analysis approaches were: Study 1: Aimed to screen a sample of PLWHA (on HAART) for physical activity and selected risk factors of IHD using the Yamax SW200 pedometer and other appropriate methods respectively. This study was an observational study and data analysis consisted of descriptive analysis and reviewing associations with univariate logistic regression analysis. A p–value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Study 2: Aimed to evaluate participants’ self-perception and behaviour in relation to the risk of IHD using a semi-structured interview and card sort technique. This study was a qualitative study and data analysis consisted of descriptive and conventional content analysis. Study 3: Aimed to develop the education physical activity diary that was used in phase 2. The methodological processes included a literature review, a review of the education material to be included in the physical activity diary by an academic peer–review panel, review by a clinician working with PLWHA and a sample of PLWHA. Following these activities the diary was constructed and translated into isiZulu. Study 4: Aimed to assess the effects of an education and home-based pedometer walking programme on the risk factors of IHD in a sample of PLWHA (on HAART) with an increased risk for IHD as determined in study 1. The study was a randomised controlled trial consisting of an intervention and control group. Assessments were done at baseline, six and 12 months. Control participants continued with standard clinic care and were phoned once a month for five months during the baseline and six month interval. The intervention participants received a Yamax SW200 pedometer, an education physical activity diary, individualised walking programme and had once a month face-to-face education sessions in the baseline to six month interval. Intervention participants were instructed to continue with their physical activity modification programme during the six to 12 months period. No contact was made with control or intervention participants during this time. Intention-to-treat analysis was the primary approach for study 4. Data analysis consisted of descriptive analysis (mean [±SD] and frequencies [percentages]) and randomisation to group allocation was assessed using a two sample/ independent t-test or Wilcoxon rank–sum (Mann– Whitney) for non-normally distributed continuous data. Categorical data were evaluated with the Pearson Chi Square test. A p–value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. To evaluate the effect of time on outcomes assessed, repeated measures ANOVA for within-group changes were performed. To evaluate the effect of the programme on outcomes assessed, repeated measures ANCOVA with baseline values as co-variates were performed to highlight the between-group effect. To assess the associations between dependent variables and the time and intervention/control interaction the pedometer data were log-transformed due to skewness. The generalised estimation equation (GEE) and mixed effects model (MEM) approaches were used to fit the univariate and multivariable models. The correlation structure selected was the exchangeable option with the identity link function suitable for Gaussian data. The relationship between high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) at baseline and evaluated risk factors for IHD was assessed with the Pearson correlation coefficient and univariate logistic regression in MEM respectively on log-transformed hs-CRP. Results: Study 1: Two hundred and five PLWHA (on HAART) were screened for selected risk factors for IHD. The demographic characteristics of participants consisted of the following: mean age (38.2 [±9.5] years), gender (men [n=47; 22.9%] and women [n=158; 77.1%]), most participants had a secondary educational level (n=95; 46.3%), were employed (n=115; 56.1%) and were supporting dependents (n=158; 85.4%). The majority of participants perceived their general health as good (n=120; 58.5%), but felt their body shape had changed in the last six months (n=123; 60%). This was mostly due to a reported increase in weight (n=132; 64.4%). The mean time on HAART was 8.7 (±2.3) months, with the majority of participants being diagnosed as HIV positive between 2009 to 2011 (n=134; 66%). The majority of participants were on Lamivudine, Efavirenz and Tenofovir (n=139; 67.8%) therapy with a mean CD4 count of 285.1 (±157) cells/mm3 and viral load of 12 513.2 (±59 710.6) copies/ml. The physical activity levels of participants were reduced with the mean pedometer step count per day found to be 7 673.2 (±4 017.7) with men being more active (10 076.3 [±4 885.6] steps per day) than women (6 993.3 [±3 462.6] steps per day). The majority of study participants (n=150; 77%) took less than 10 000 steps per day. Taking less than 10 000 steps per day was related to waist circumference (WC) (odds ratio=1.04; 95% CI: 1.00–1.08; p=0.03) when adjusted for age and gender. Eight participants (3.9%) participated in formal sporting activities that were supervised and 123 participants (60%) tried to incorporate exercise into their daily lives. The preferred activity method for exercise was walking (n=56; 45.5%) and running (n=33; 26.8%). Perceived stress was moderately high with a mean Cohen’s Perceived Stress score at 19.2 (±7.8) with women reporting higher levels of stress (20 [±7.1]) than men (16.9 [±9.1]). A family history of IHD was low in participants (n=29; 14.2%) as well as a known diagnosis of diabetes mellitus (n=1; 0.005%), hypertension (n=19; 9%) and current smoking status (n=33; 16.1%). The majority of participants reported not being able to consume fish weekly (n=114; 55.6%) and reported weekly consumption of fruit and vegetables (n=110; 53.7%). Few participants were able to consume three to five vegetables and fruit combined per day (n=68; 33.2%). The mean resting heart rate (RHR) of the sample was slightly elevated (82.7 [±11.4] bpm) with having a RHR ≥ 80 bpm related to diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (odds ratio=1.07; 95% CI: 1.03–1.11; p<0.00) and physical activity (odds ratio=0.99; 95% CI: 0.99–0.99; p=0.02) as adjusted for age and gender. The sample as a whole was overweight with a mean body mass index (BMI) of 25.6 (±1.4) kg/m2. Having a BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 was related to systolic blood pressure (SBP) (odds ratio=1.07; 95% CI: 1.04–1.10; p<0.00), WC (odds ratio=1.34; 95% CI: 1.22–1.46; p<0.00), hip circumference (odds ratio=1.53; 95% CI: 1.38–1.75; p<0.00) and CD4 count (odds ratio=1.00; 95% CI: 1.00–1.01; p=0.01) as adjusted for age and gender. Study 2: Thirty PLWHA (on HAART) were purposefully sampled according to the following criteria: individuals had to be on HAART for six to 12 months, between the ages of 20 and 65 years and ambulatory without an assistive device with no pre-existing history of cardiovascular disease, mental illness, current acute infection, current pregnancy or breast-feeding women. The demographic details of participants were as follows: median age 36.5 (31.8–45.0) years; women (n=25; 83.3%) and men (n=5; 16.7%); the majority of participants (n=16; 53.3%) had a secondary school education, were employed (n=17; 56.7%) and were supporting dependents (n=26; 86.7%). Knowledge and understanding related to IHD, insight into own risk for IHD and health character in the HIV context were identified as three prominent themes. An important finding that the study highlighted was that participants did not perceive themselves to be at risk for IHD due to being HIV+ or using HAART in any way. The majority of participants (n=15; 50%) did not perceive themselves to be at risk for IHD due to reporting having adequate coping behaviour and living a healthy lifestyle. Twelve (40%) participants did however perceive a risk for IHD due to physical symptoms experienced and their behaviour consisting of a poor diet, elevated stress levels and lack of exercise. Three (10%) participants were unsure concerning their risk for IHD in the future. Study 3: A selection of pages from the education physical activity diary can be found in Appendix 31. Study 4: Eighty four PLWHA (on HAART) participated in study 4. The education and home-based walking programme implemented in study 4 was successful in improving physical activity levels in both the control and intervention groups, as participants’ pedometer-determined step-count increased from baseline. The within-group change at six months were statistically significant (p=0.03) for both groups but not so for the 12 month period (control group [p=0.33] and intervention group [p=0.21]). It was however of clinical value in the intervention group, due to the group exceeding the step count aim of the programme, that being 3 000 steps above baseline at each assessment point. Translating the step count into time, would amount to approximately 30 minutes of added walking per day. The group therefore reached the Public Health recommendations for physical activity. Social support in the form of encouragement, motivation and participation from friends and family was noted as important enablers that assisted intervention participants to adhere to their programme. No significant differences were observed in the sociodemographic profile, HIV related clinical markers and antiretroviral therapy and IHD risk factors evaluated at baseline. The study highlighted that inflammation (hs-CRP) was a significant risk factor for IHD in the study cohort due to mean baseline values of 8.6 (±8.4) mg/l in the intervention and 5.4 (±6.5) mg/l in the control group. Inflammation (hs-CRP) was related to perceived stress (Pearson correlation [r=0.23; p=0.03] and MEM univariate logistic regression [log B=0.04; 95% CI: 0.0004– 0.08; p=0.03]), weight (Pearson correlation [r=2.8; p=0.01] and MEM univariate logistic regression [log B=0.02; 95% CI: 0.01–0.04; p=0.01]), BMI (Pearson correlation [r=0.35; p<0.00] and MEM univariate logistic regression [log B=0.07; 95% CI: 0.03–0.12; p<0.00]), WC (Pearson correlation [r=0.28; p=0.01] and MEM univariate logistic regression [log B=0.03; 95% CI: 0.06–0.36; p=0.01]) and hip circumference (Pearson correlation [r=0.28; p=0.01] and MEM univariate logistic regression [log B=0.02; 95% CI: 0.01–0.04; p=0.01]). The risk for IHD according to Framingham Risk Score (FRS) calculation was low as baseline FRS points were 3.3 (±6.5) points in the control group and 2.5 (±6.5) points in the intervention group. The education and home-based walking programme was effective in increasing physical function capacity (six-minute walk test mean difference: 15.70 [±9.33] meters), reducing waist: hip ratio (mean difference of -0.003 [±0.01] cm), reducing glucose level (mean difference of -0.12 [±0.09] mmol/l) and increasing HDL (mean difference of 0.07 [±0.05] mmol/l) as evaluated during betweengroup analysis. The within-group analysis indicated that a significant reduction in SBP occurred in both groups at the six months time period (control group: p=0.03 and intervention group: p<0.00). A slight increase in BMI occurred in both groups at the six and 12 month period that were statistically significant (p<0.00). A significant reduction in total cholesterol (p=0.04) and LDL (p<0.00) at the 12 month period were also noted in the control group. The log-transformed univariate logistic regression model highlighted many associations between the interaction (time and treatment: control or intervention group effect) and secondary outcomes assessed. The inverse associations between perceived stress levels (p<0.00) and BMI (p=0.02) with the six month time interval of the control and intervention groups compared to baseline control findings were confirmed during multivariable analysis in the log-transformed GEE model. Additionally an inverse association between perceived stress levels (p<0.00), BMI (p<0.00), LDL (p=0.01) and triglycerides (TG) (p=0.01) at the six month time interval of the intervention group compared to baseline control findings were confirmed in the multivariable analysis in the logtransformed MEM model. Conclusion: This project showed that physical inactivity, elevated perceived stress levels, inadequate diet of fruit, vegetable and fish intake, elevated RHR, increased BMI and raised hs-CRP were risk factors for IHD in the study cohort. These risk factors screened indicated an elevated risk for IHD in the future even though the FRS demonstrated a low risk for IHD. An IHD predictive model that incorporate hs-CRP when evaluating risk for IHD and which has been validated for use in PLWHA is therefore necessary to adequately evaluate the risk for IHD in this population. This is especially of relevance in the South African context considering the prevalence of HIV infection in women and the association of female gender with hs-CRP as indicated in the literature. The project highlighted that an elevated stress level was a significant risk factor for IHD in the study cohort and was also given as one reason why participants perceived themselves to be at risk for IHD. The positive association between perceived stress and hs-CRP was also of value. The stress lowering effect of the education and home-based pedometer walking programme was therefore of significant importance as it could manage this risk factor. Additionally if stress declines it could potentially also influence hs-CRP in the long term. The study therefore contributes to the body of knowledge related to the effects of exercise on psychological parameters in PLWHA. Additionally the project confirmed that an optimistic bias in individuals living with HIV is present regarding their future possibility for developing IHD. Their perception for the risk for IHD did not always align with the risk factors present as screened. This might be due to the fair application of knowledge related to IHD when evaluating their risk for IHD. It also confirmed that education strategies are needed to explain the risk factors for IHD and how HIV infection and HAART influence these risk factors of IHD. Lastly the project found that an education and individualised home-based pedometer walking programme was able to influence physical activity levels positively and was successful in reducing the risk of some factors for IHD in PLWHA at primary care level. Such a programme can be implemented as an innovative method to manage risk factors for IHD in PLWHA by physiotherapists especially in regions where physiotherapy numbers are low and HIV prevalence high.

Osteoporosis is a serious public health problem which threatens millions of people worldwide. Since there is no cure for osteoporosis, prevention strategies such as educational programs are critical. Educational approaches to osteoporosis prevention among Chinese populations have not been substantially studied. The purpose of this study, a web-based educational approach, is to help fill this research void. There are three reasons a web-based approach was chosen for this study: 1) It is a novel approach to osteoporosis prevention in China; 2) There is potential to reach large numbers of people at a relatively low cost; and 3) the web provides suitable mechanism to study a Chinese population in China while matriculating in the U.S. This study was designed to assess the impact of a web-based program on knowledge, health beliefs and self-efficacy about osteoporosis prevention among college students in China. A website was constructed around the following four educational modules, undergirded in behavioral change principles aligned with the Health Belief Model: 1) Knowledge of osteoporosis; 2) Prevention of osteoporosis; 3) Calcium and osteoporosis; and 4) Exercise and osteoporosis. Three pre-validated questionnaires consisting of several sub-scales were posted to the website to pre- and post-test participants' knowledge (Osteoporosis Knowledge Test – OKT), health beliefs (Osteoporosis Health Belief Scale - OHBS) and self-efficacy (Osteoporosis Self Efficacy Scale - OSES). The study was carried out between May and July 2008. One hundred and thirty-one Chinese college students (mean age 22.5 ± 3.0 yrs) completed the program. Post-test results were significantly improved over pre-test results for all survey sub-scales. Unless otherwise indicated, the level of significance for the following subscales' pre-post-test results were P Results indicate that this web-based osteoporosis education program was effective in increasing knowledge, health beliefs, and self-efficacy about osteoporosis among college students in China. The strategies used to develop the program could provide guidance for future studies. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Nutrition, Food, and Exercise Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2008. / Date of Defense: October 15, 2008. / Prevention, Web-Based, Health Belief Model, Osteoporosis / Includes bibliographical references. / Jenice Rankins, Professor Directing Thesis; YunHwa Peggy Hsieh, Committee Member; Mia Liza A. Lustria, Committee Member.

Profound changes occur within the female breast with increasing age; glandular atrophy, increased skin laxity and stretched Cooper‟s ligaments cause an inferior lateral migration of the breast tissue. However, the current lingerie market predominantly revolves around bras designed for younger women that older women may feel are inappropriate for their physique. Literature regarding age-appropriate clothing has postulated that bras should be designed based on specific shapes, populations and usages. Yet the bra preferences of older women have been neglected in the literature. By determining women's requirements, the performance of current bras may be ascertained, and subsequent alterations may be recommended for bra design in order to optimise bras for older women if required. The aims of the current thesis were to: provide a wider understanding of the bra requirements of women aged 45 to 65 years, determine the key bra performance variables for this population, develop procedures to assess these variables and to determine the current appropriateness of a small sample of bras for this population. To achieve the research aims the thesis contained five studies. The first study was exploratory in nature, using focus groups and interviews to develop a knowledge base on the bra preferences of women aged 45 to 65 years. A survey was subsequently designed and implemented to determine the key bra performance variables among a wider sample of the population. The results of these studies identify the general dimensions that women consider when purchasing a bra (comfort, support, aesthetics, practicalities, and psychological aspects). From these dimensions, 11 key bra performance variables that are of importance to older women were derived (comfort, support, bra's ability to stay in place, appearance under clothes, silhouette, breast shape, breast lift, shoulder straps, discreetness, fabric and fit). Methods to quantify the key bra performance variables were required to assess the performance of current bras for older women. The third experimental study developed methods which minimised the limitations of existing procedures, and determined the validity and reliability of these methods. As a result of this study, methods to assess the 11 key bra performance variables were deemed acceptable for both objective and subjective measures. In the fourth study, two bras were selected from a popular and unpopular brand; the performance of these bras was assessed with regard to the 11 key bra performance variables. The results indicate that women aged 45 to 65 years preferred a bra that minimises breast kinematics, provides greater breast projection and lifts the breast sufficiently. Although differences lay between the bare breasted and bra conditions, the two bras performed similarly despite the difference in popularity. The final study incorporated a four week wearer trial to elucidate any changes in performance that may appear with increased usage. Subjective ratings of breast support and the bras' ability to stay in place were lower following the wearer trial. The bras tested performed well for the bra variables; comfort, fit, support and shoulder strap position. However, the remaining key bra performance variables may require alteration to ensure their appropriateness for women aged 45 to 65 years. It is concluded that women aged 45 to 65 years are generally cognisant of changes to their breasts as they age, subsequently seeking bras that are different from those they previously would have worn. The findings of this thesis suggest that alterations in bra design are required to optimise bras for older women.

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The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a net-like intracellular organelle where protein is folded, matures, and is transported. When cellular stressful circumstances affect the ER, unfolded proteins are stacked in the ER lumen. This cellular stress is called ER stress. To defeat ER stress, cells have a defensive mechanism called the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR). Many chronic diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes or neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer’s disease have recently been linked to ER stress. Exercise has a significant effect on ameliorating the development of these chronic diseases or neurodegenerative diseases. However, no studies have assessed the effect of exercise on UPR activity in the brain. So this study was mainly focused on identifying how voluntary running wheel exercise affects the UPR in the brain of C57BL/6 mice exposed to a variety of dietary conditions of differing levels of dietary fat and different periods of feeding. As an exercise protocol, access to a voluntary running wheel for 3 weeks was used and running mice were grouped depending on their level of running activity. Using real-time PCR and western blotting, UPR-related gene/protein expression (XBP1, ATF6, eIF2α, and GRP78) was assessed in different brain regions. Exercise had a significant effect on up-regulating UPR activity in the brain of mice fed low fat diet (LFD) or high fat diet (HFD) for 3 weeks or 3 months. These effects were time and brain region dependent. However, the effect of exercise on up-regulating UPR disappeared in mice fed very high fat diet (VHFD) for 4 months. In addition to assessing UPR activity, the possibility that exercise-induced UPR activation was associated with activation of apoptosis was investigated. Apoptotic signaling was not affected by exercise. Trophic factors are activated by exercise and are known to be linked to UPR activity. The possibility that IGF-1, one such trophic factor, was responsible for exercise-induced UPR up-regulation without activating apoptosis was studied. The results showed that IGF-1 was not responsible for exercise-related activation of the UPR in the brain. The chemical chaperone 4-phenylbutyric acid (PBA) was given to mice to reduce ER stress and the effect of exercise on the UPR of the brain was studied. PBA had a tendency to lower ER stress in the hypothalamus. In this condition, exercise had a significant effect to decrease UPR activity. In conclusion, voluntary exercise activates the UPR in several brain regions of mice exposed to high-fat diet for up-to 3 months without activating apoptotic signaling. Only long-term exposure to dietary fat increased the brain UPR. It is possible that this exercise-induced UPR activation without apoptosis may contribute to the protective effect of exercise on brain health. (134 pages)