Many of the physiological responses concomitant with exercise are understood. Similarly, many of the changes characterizing the aging process have been established. However, the combination of the two (ie. effects of aging on exercise or vice versa) presents a myriad of questions, of which many remain unanswered.The objective of this study was to establish the differences between previously untrained young and adult male Fischer 344 rats following an exhaustive swim for the following parameters: 1) muscle glycogen, an essential fuel substrate; 2) Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), a marker of inflammation and tissue damage; 3) citrate synthase (CS), an integral enzyme of the Kreb's cycle and a respiratory chain marker; 4) muscle protein; and 5) percent muscle dry weight.The rats were divided into two groups by age. Young (3 mo., n=16) and adult (12 mo., n=17) rats were randomly divided into sedentary (young sed (YSD) n=7 and adult sed (ASD) n=9) or exercised groups (young swimmers (YSW) n=8 and adult swimmers (ASW) n=8). Rats in the swimming groups were given a brief exposure to the water one week prior to their exhaustive swim to minimize the stress and confusion during the actual exercise bout. On the study days one randomly selected swimmer from each age group was swum to exhaustion and sacrificed via pneumothorax. One animal from each of the respective sedentary age groups was also randomly selected and sacrificed as above. The plantaris, rectus femoris, red vastus, soleus, triceps, and liver were surgically excised from each animal and frozen in liquid nitrogen for later analysis.While the younger animals had lower glycogen stores initially, following the exhaustive swim their reduction in muscle glycogen was approximately 150% that of the adult animals for any given muscle. Muscle glycogen levels in ASD and YSD rats were significantly higher than those of the YSW animals for all muscles with the exception of the YSD's soleus. However, the percent decrease in liver glycogen following the swim for the two age groups was almost identical (a reduction of 55.05% and 58.59% for the adult and young age groups, respectively).Although the adult animals were significantly heavier than the younger rats, this did not appear to cause a significant difference in their swim time to exhaustion. No significant differences were observed between the groups for muscle protein or G6PDH. Levels of CS were significantly higher in the YSD plantaris when compared to the ASW. Similarly, the ASD rectus femoris CS levels were significantly greater than those of the ASW. Although significant differences between groups in percent muscle dry weight existed for the plantaris, rectus femoris, and triceps such differences seemed to have little bearing on the two age group's swim to exhaustion times.On the basis of this study it was concluded that although starting with greater glycogen stores prior to exercise, adult animals use less of this substrate prior to exhaustion than do younger animals. While the mechanism for such a phenomenon was not discovered it is believed to be enzymatic in nature. Furthermore, the adult animals do not appear to exhibit significantly more tissue damage following an exhaustive swim than that seen in younger animals. / School of Physical Education

To determine the influence of running on certain blood-born parameters that are involved in bone metabolism, serum levels of calcium, alkaline phosphatase (ALP, a marker of bone formation), growth hormone (hGH), and parathyroid hormone (PTH), were analyzed in 10 male subjects following a 40 min. run at 70% VO2max. Each trial was preceeded by 1 day of inactivity, a 8-12 hr. fast, and drawing of a baseline blood sample by venipuncture. All other blood samples were taken via an indwelling catheter which was inserted in an antecubital vein immediately following the completion of the exercise bout. When the catheter was in place, an "immediate post" sample was drawn. Subsequent samples were taken at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, and 60 min. after the immediate post sample. Analysis of serum calcium concentrations demonstrated that levels were significantly elevated by 12% following exercise, going from a fasted level of 9.7 ± .53 mg/dl to post-exercise levels of 11.8 ± .73 mg/dl. Serum calcium remained elevated during the first 4 min. following exercise. By 5 min. post-exercise, calcium levels dropped to levels that were significantly lower than the post-exercise sample. However, serum alkaline phosphatase did not change significantly following exercise, as the values remained within normal range throughout the experimental period. Concentrations tended to decrease over time but were not significantly lower than the preor post-exercise levels by the end of the sampling period. Serum concentrations of hGH were more than doubled following a single bout of exercise, going from 4.0 ± 0.98 ng/ml before exercise to 8.8 ± 1.6 ng/ml immediately post-exercise. Following this initial rise, hGH progressively declined and returned to baseline values by 30 min. post-exercise. The concentrations of PTH did not change significantly following exercise. The postexercise sample tended to be higher than baseline values but were not significantly different. The results presented here indicate that an exercise bout 40 min. at 70% V02max results in an elevation of serum calcium and hGH, but does not alter PTH secretion or ALP activity. The data presented in this study indicate that the temporary rise in calcium following exercise is unrelated to PTH. It is hypothesized that the increase in calcium that we observed is attributable to lactate accumulation that would result from an exercise bout of this nature. The buildup of lactic acid and drop in pH causes a dissolution of the crystaline calcium hydroxyapatite compartment of the skeleton, thus causing an increase in ionized calcium. It is not known whether a single bout of exercise can influence hormonal secretion to a sufficient degree to affect bone density, but the hormonal changes demonstrated here could be involved in long-term effects of training. / School of Physical Education

The use of Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) by those with Diabetes Mellitus participating in physical activity has not been clearly addressed. The American College of Sports Medicine has suggested that RPE may be used with diseased populations, including those with Non-insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM), but no specific guidelines for RPE use have been established for this population. The purpose of this study was to compare the RPE during graded exercise for the individuals with NIDDM and apparently healthy individuals. Specific comparisons of the RPE at the ventilatory threshold and at 60% and 80% of maximal oxygen uptake were made.Seven subjects with NIDDM were paired with seven apparently healthy CONTROLS of similar age, weight, and gender. All subjects performed a maximal graded exercise test (GXT) on a motor driven treadmill per Bruce Ramp protocol. Rate of perceived exertion was taken every minute using Borg's 6-20 point scale (Borg 1973). All subjects were given the same instructions for use of the RPE scale and were queried by the same technician. An analysis of variance was performed with a significance level set of ps0.05. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between the two groups for all demographic variables measured including age, weight, height, body mass index (BMI) and percent body fat. No significant difference was seen for maximal exercise data including RER, RPE, V02, and heart rate. Maximal V02 was 31.1 ± 8.2 ml•kg-lmin-l SD for the NIDDM group and 38.7 ± 11.6 for the CONTROL group when expressed in weight relative terms. Maximal heart rates for the NIDDM and CONTROL groups were 176.9 ± 17.9 bpm and 176.4 ± 8.8 bpm respectively. Ventilatory threshold (VT), heart rate at VT and percentage of VO2 at which VT occurred were not significantly different between groups.No statistically significant differences were seen between the NIDDM or the CONTROL group for RPE at the selected intensities. RPE at the VT was 13.0 ± 3.6 and 12.3 ± 1.8 for the NIDDM and CONTROL groups respectively. RPE at 60% of functional capacity was 13.3 ± 3.5 for the NIDDM group and 12.0 ± 1.7 for the CONTROL group. Likewise, no statistical difference was seen at 80% of functional capacity. The NIDDM group RPE was 16.1 ± 2.5 and the CONTROL group rating was 15.9 ± 2.0, respectively. Under the terms of this study those individuals with NIDDM perceived exertion similarly to the CONTROL group. / School of Physical Education

The direct measurement of maximal oxygen consumption (V02 max) has always been the benchmark for the determination of Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF). However, the time and expense of that type of testing does not lend itself to students in activity classes or adult fitness participants. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity of a 500 yard shallow water run test in determining CRF. A commonly used field test, the 1.5 mile run, was used as a basis for comparison during the 500 yard water run. Subjects in this study included 15 men and 28 women that completed a 1.5 mile run and a 500 yard shallow water run as well as a graded exercise test to fatigue on a treadmill. Correlations between 1.5 mile runs and the 500 yard shallow water run and VO2 peak were -.89 and -.80 respectively. In addition to simple regression analysis, multiple regression analysis was used to significantly improve the prediction of CRF (p<0.05). Peak HR during the 1.5 mile run significantly improved the 1.5 mile run prediction of CRF (R2=0.78 to 0.82) with a reduction in SEE (3.95 to 3.52 ml/kg/min) from the simple regression alone. Percent body fat and subject height improved the 500 yard shallow water runs prediction of CRF (R2=0.62 to 0.86) with a reduction in SEE (5.14 to 3.19 ml/kg/min). In conclusion the 500 yard shallow water run can be used to accurately predict CRF and with the addition of percent body fat and height provide a better prediction of CRF. / School of Physical Education

Progressive resistance training (PRT) in the elderly has commonly used ATPase histochemistry to evaluate fiber type changes, but evidence shows there are myosin heavy chain (MHC) hybrids in aging muscle that cannot be classified by histochemistry. The purpose of this study was to assess the MHC and whole muscle alterations following a 12-week PRT protocol. Seven healthy men (age=74.0±4.7, weight=74.6±13.5kg) underwent testing for 1-repetition maximum (1-RM), whole muscle (thigh) crosssectional area (CSA) by computed tomography, and a needle muscle biopsy from the vastus lateralis for analysis of MHC, pre- and post-training. The PRT consisted of 2 sets of 10 repetitions, and a third set to volitional exhaustion at 80% 1-RM, 3 days per week for 12 weeks. Muscle ATPase histochemistry analysis for distribution did not significantly differ following training. Muscle samples were freeze dried and dissected for MHC analysis (sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (5% gel) and silver stained; 224.0±11.2 and 213.0±8.1 fibers/subject pre-/post-training; total fibers analyzed=3059). MHC analysis demonstrated significant increases in MHC I proportion (10.4%; P<0.05), and significant decreases in MHC UIIa (9.0%; P<0.05), UIIa/x (0.9%; P<0.05), and IIa/x (8.9%; P<0.05) isofroms, along with no change in the MHC Ila and IIx isoforms, pre- versus post-training. In addition, 1-RM (51.9%; P<0.05) and CSA (5.9%; P<0.05) increased from pre- to post-testing. This data supports previous whole muscle changes, more important, is the increase in MHC I and decrease in MHC I/IIa, I/IIa/IIx, and IIa/x hybrids. The myosin light chain 3f (MLC3f) to MLC 2 ratio did not change with the PRT in either the MHC I or MHC IIa isoforms, although there was a significantly greater amount of MLC 3f in the MHC Ila versus the MHC I fibers (p<0.05), pre- and post-training. The myosin isofrom data provides support that aging muscle has the plasticity to adapt in a manner unlike that of young muscle. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the intermodal reliability of perceptually-based exercise intensity among four machines: Treadmill (TM), Stationary cycle (CB), Body Trec elliptical arm/leg (BT), and AirDyne (AD). Nineteen subjects (8 male and 11 female; age 44 + 12 yrs) completed one GXT on each of the machines, following a mode-specific protocol. Subjects also completed two 15 minute production trials (PTs) on each machine at self-selected workrates corresponding to target RPEs of 11-12 (L) and 15-16 (H). In the PTs, workloads were self-adjusted through the first 5 minutes and then remained stable for the rest of the trial. Modes were randomly assigned, and subjects were blinded to the workload throughout each trial. Heart rate (HR) and oxygen uptake (V02) were obtained during the final 5 min. of each trial using a Polar HR monitor and Aerosport TEEM 100. Also, blood lactate (BLC) was sampled immediately following exercise at each intensity. Intermodal reliability was assessed using ANOVA, intraclass correlations (R), coefficients of variation (CV), and mean absolute differences for HR, V02, and BLC during the second PT. ANOVA revealed nointeraction for BLC at either the LOW or HIGH. Post -hoc analysis showed the TM and/or BT to produce significantly higher physiological responses at both intensity levels. At the L and H, intermodal Rs were: HR (.84/.88), VO2 (8/.77) and BLC (0.09/0.67). Significant intrasubject differences were observed at the L for HR (11-47bpm, VO2 (.04-1.46 L/min), and BLC (.29-12.94 mM/L). The H trials followed a very similar trend. Using a HR criteria of +2 beats/15 sec. to assess intrasubject reliability, 0% of the subjects were reliable at both the L and H. This data suggests that perceptually-based exercise across multiple modes is associated with significant intraindividual variability, and reliability is dependent upon the statistical design and physiological variable being used. In conclusion, it is recommended that extensive exercise testing be performed to ensure that individual participants can reliably use the RPE scale, prior to using an RPE value to prescribe the intensity of exercise. / School of Physical Education

Diabetes has become a nationwide epidemic affecting 18.2 million Americans, and the incidence is expected to increase 122% by the year 2025. The dyslipidemia associated with type 2 diabetes—low HDL-C; high TG; and small, dense LDL-C—contributes to the 2 to 4 times greater risk of individuals with diabetes to have a major cardiovascular event. Niacin, a B vitamin, and aerobic exercise have been shown separately to favorably alter the lipid profile. The present study examined a combination therapy of Niaspan®, an extended-release formulation of niacin, and 16 weeks of aerobic exercise in 23 individuals with type 2 diabetes. The dosage of Niaspan® began at 500 mg/day and increased 500 mg/day every 4 weeks up to a maximum dose of 2000 mg/day. Subjects were advised to gradually progress their frequency, intensity, and duration of aerobic exercise until they were expending at least 1500 kilocalories by week 8. Subjects were instructed to make no changes to their diet or diabetes medication regimen. Lipoproteins and subfractions and selected measures of physical fitness were examined before and after the 16 week intervention. Following the 16 week intervention period, there were significant changes (p<0.05) in HDL-C (+28%), TG (-19%), VLDL-C (-12%), and LDL-C (-9%). There were also significant changes in the larger, more buoyant subfractions HDL2 (+48%), VLDL2 (-15%) and LDL1 (-48%). Other subfractions that are smaller and more dense also changed favorably: HDL3 (+24%) and LDL4 (-15%). Although there was no significant weight loss in this population as a result of the intervention, there were significant changes in submaximal heart rate (124.9±17.6 vs. 116.7±16.3 bpm) and resting systolic (136.8±17.5 vs. 128.3±13.8 mmHg) and diastolic (80.3±12.5 vs. 73.2±9.8 mmHg) blood pressure, adaptations that occur with improvement in physical fitness. There were no changes in fasting plasma glucose or glycosylated hemoglobin, contradicting any deterioration in glucose control. Therefore, the combination of Niaspan® and aerobic exercise is effective at altering the lipid profile in individuals with type 2 diabetes. In addition, this intervention is safe in that it does not adversely affect glucose control. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

The purpose of this research study was to examine the effects of consumption of beverages (caffeinated and alcoholic) and physical activity on the frequency and severity of hot flashes in peri-menopausal, menopausal, and post-menopausal women by conducting an on-line survey of women over the age of 40 employed at a Midwestern University. One-hundred ninety-six women participated in this study. Majority of participants were age 50-59 (n=104, 53.1%), and were in the naturally post-menopausal reproductive stage (n=81, 41.3%). Overall, results revealed that the effects of self-reported physical activity, average daily caffeine and alcohol intake were not significant in predicting the frequency of hot flashes (R2=.043, F(6, 184) = 1.39, p= .221). However, results revealed a small, but statistically significant effect of physical activity, caffeine, and alcohol intake on severity of hot flashes (R2=.068, F(6,180) = 2.195, p = .046). Additionally, relatively more participation in aerobic physical activity increased frequency of hot flashes (p= .031); while higher intensity of aerobic physical activity had an inverse relationship on both frequency and severity of hot flashes (p=.011, p=.003, respectively). / Department of Family and Consumer Sciences

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of: 1) caffeine consumption; 2) Body Mass Index (BMI); and 3) frequency and intensity of physical activity on the frequency and severity of hot flashes, in pre-menopausal, peri-menopausal, menopausal and post-menopausal Hispanic women. Ordinary Least Squares regressions indicated there was a statistical significant correlation between daily total estimated caffeine intake with frequency (R2=0.078 (F(8, 207)=2.2, P=0.029) and severity of hot flashes (R2=0.086 (F(8, 208)=2.45, P=0.015). Analysis of variance revealed that and increase in frequency of 30 min strength physical activity reduced severity of hot flashes by 0.72 on a hedonic scale (p<0.05). Conversely, caffeine intake of 100 mg increased frequency and severity of hot flashes (p<0.001, p=0.004, respectively). / Department of Family and Consumer Sciences

Access to abstract permanently restricted to Ball State community only. / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science