This study was undertaken at a smallholder irrigation scheme in the previously disadvantaged rural area of Mamuhohi in the Limpopo Province. Like other smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa, Mamuhohi Irrigation Scheme has not performed particularly well. The expectations of interveners like politicians, development agencies and planners have not been realised in smallholder irrigation schemes. Constraints faced by smallholder farmers include a history of dependency; the high costs of mechanisation; the absence of credit, inputs, and output markets; insecure land tenure; “hedgehog behaviour” among smallholders; lack of funding; and poor management and maintenance of infrastructure. The White Paper on Agriculture (NDA, 1995) clearly set out government‘s intention to withdraw subsidies previously enjoyed by farmers and to ensure that the real costs of natural resources are reflected in the pricing of resources in order to discourage abuse. This resulted in the enacting of laws like the new National Water Act of 1998 (DWAF, 1998), aimed at sustainable water management. This included the rehabilitation of infrastructure prior to transfer, and the establishment of water users’ associations amongst farmers, which were to take over ownership and collective management of the schemes. The overall objective of the study was therefore to assess the sustainability and, more specifically, the economic viability of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa in the context of irrigation transfer. Hypothesis to be tested: <ul> The behaviour of smallholder farmers is diverse and is reflected in the way in which they view farming and engage in agricultural practices. </ul> The study also sought to indicate the existence of diversity in the smallholder irrigation scheme, by exposing different types of smallholder farmers within the scheme. This information should be of great importance in assisting smallholder farmers regarding issues of their own development. The findings will also help to curb the generalisation of developers’ perceptions regarding smallholder irrigation farmers. Smallholder irrigation farmers are feeling the full impact of the withdrawal of government assistance from the irrigation schemes, which have deteriorated to a state of partial collapse. A great need among farmers remains the rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure, which would enable them to farm their land. As indicated earlier, the study found that diverse types of smallholder farmers exist within the irrigation scheme. This indicates that appropriate information in this regard is important for government in the formulation of policies aimed at the development of such farmers. Through this study, four types of smallholder farmers were identified within the same irrigation scheme. The methodology applied in achieving the aforementioned outputs pursued a specific sequence, starting with the formulation of questions. The particular study area was chosen due to the likelihood of the presence of different types of farmers that could be identified through the study. A list of the names of smallholders and other key information was provided by the local agricultural office. This assisted with the identification of people to be interviewed. The preliminary interviews were conducted with a sample size of 25 farmers and were aimed at gaining a better understanding of the people within the study area. The questionnaire used during these interviews contained open-ended questions that allowed respondents to express their views and make suggestions. This led to the development of a questionnaire consisting of closed-ended questions, aimed at eliciting responses that were relevant to the purpose of the survey. The questions were also as simple as possible to ensure that they would be clearly understood by both the interviewer and the respondents. About four weeks were spent in trying to understand the real setup of the study area and the lifestyle of the local community. The second step in the methodological sequence was the collection of data from 60 farmers. These interviews were conducted with the assistance of two extension officers. It was not possible to interview all the farmers at once, and it took about two weeks to interview all 60 farmers. Fortunately, the farmers were extremely co-operative throughout the entire interview process. The third step in the methodological sequence was the processing of the data collected during the interviews. The typology here was developed by means of qualitative analysis and had to be refined over a period of time to ensure a valid typology of farmers. This necessitated the use of other data analysis tools, which ultimately contributed towards the classification of farmers according to different types. Four types of farmers were eventually identified, namely: Highly intensive maize growers; Vegetable growers; Diversified maize growers; and Intensive diversified growers. Lastly, the conclusion that can be drawn from the research is that any attempt to develop smallholder irrigation farmers requires an understanding of their diversity – hence this study’s intention to identify, in a scientific manner, the existence of such diversity. Understanding diversity amongst farmers also requires an understanding of the different strategies that farmers employ to ensure their livelihood. This means that both the socio-economic and institutional setting of such farmers must be understood. / Dissertation (MInstAgrar)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

This research was undertaken to study the effect of education on small farm revenues and profits in Kenya. Schooling (defined as the number of school standards completed by the farm operator) was used as the most important source of education. It was hypothesized that schooling has a positive effect on farm revenues and profits. The effect of other sources of information viz; extension contact, demonstration attendance and baraza attendance on farm revenues and profits were also investigated. The research was done using regression analysis where these variables and other farm activity relevant variables were fitted in regression equations. The choice of these variables were based on economic theory, Kenya small farm characteristics and the objective of the study. Several factors would qualify as supporting evidence for the argument that educated farmers are more productive. We expect educated farmers to be more informed in terms of use of new production technologies. Education as a source of human capital also enhances the productive abilities of human beings and also enables those who have invested in education to use their resources more efficiently as well as adjusting to new "ways of producing more efficiently". In the current study we find that schooling of the farm operator is positively related to level of expenditure on farm purchased variable inputs. This indicates that education enhances adoption of new technologies and innovativeness. Further it was shown that farmers with more education earned more value added per acre from their farm business compared to their less educated counterparts. On the overall farm activity, farmers with eight or more standards of schooling earned upto 80.2% in value added per acre compared to those who had no schooling. The regression estimates were done on a stepwise procedure where farm specific enterprises were estimated separately and then aggregated and estimated as one farm sector. Thus a crop equation, a livestock equation and a total farm output equation were estimated. This model was then developed into a variable profit function. A simple linear function procedure was used in the regression analysis. In all the estimated value added equations the schooling coefficient was positive and significant at 5% level two tail t-test. As we move from farm specific activities to a farm aggregate output model and lastly to value added model the schooling coefficient increased in size confirming the positive role of education in allocative effect. These results show that schooling plays an important role in allocation of other purchased inputs and also choice of crop mix and input selection. The estimated marginal return to schooling of farm operator in the profit function was Kshs.281. In an earlier function where schooling of the farm operator was fitted into a total farm income equation the estimated marginal return to schooling was Kshs.778.89. When schooling of the farm operator is allowed to interact with extension service the estimated interaction variable coefficient is negative showing the two act as substitute sources of knowledge, and the schooling coefficient increased in size showing that those who had both schooling and extension service earned comparatively more farm revenues. The role of other educative factors like extension service, demonstration attendance, and baraza attendance in influencing agricultural production was investigated. Regression results showed that extension contact had a negative and significant effect on farm revenues and profits. Demonstration and baraza attendance had similar effects on farm revenues and profits. In the value added function hired labour variable was fitted as the cost of hired labour per day. The estimated coefficient for this variable was positive and significant at 5%. The estimated coefficient for this variable shows hired labour is not optimally used, and farmers can increase their farm profits by hiring more labour. When this variable was fitted as the wage rate paid to hired labour per day the estimated coefficient was positive and significant. These results indicate that cost of hired labour depends on its quality. In the sales function hired labour was specified as mandays of hired labour per year and the estimated coefficient which reflects the shadow price of labour was higher than average hired labour wage rate implying that this factor is underemployed. In the sales function the estimated coefficient for the value of purchased inputs variable indicates that there is an element of underutilization of these inputs. This variable is fitted in value terms and in profit maximizing conditions the estimated coefficient is expected to be no different from unit. However, the estimated coefficient for this variable is approximately 2.5 showing a shilling spent on purchased inputs will bring forth 2.5 shillings. Thus an increase in the use of purchased inputs will increase farm revenues. Results show evidence of regional differences in farmer productivity and utilization of purchased inputs in favour of Central province. The study is based on the 1982 CBS-IDS-World Bank Household Survey of Rural Kenya data set. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Thesis (M.Sc. (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2015 / Food insecurity and hunger problems have received considerable attention in recent years from research experts and governments worldwide. The most important nutrients in food security are proteins, especially animal proteins. Previous studies have indicated that poultry production is the strategic source of animal protein because of its fecundity, fast growth rate and short generation interval. The poultry production sector consists of broiler and layers subsector. In South Africa, broiler production is practised by both large-scale and smallholder farmers; with the former dominating the retail and urban markets. Smallholder broiler farmers on the other hand, produce for local individuals and do not have access to high value chain markets. There are several studies on broiler value chain countrywide and on broiler resource-use efficiency in many developing countries. However, most researchers have not focused on smallholder broiler farmers despite the fact that they provide cheaper broiler meat to the majority of low income rural populations. Thus, this study analysed the broiler value chain and socio-economic factors that contribute to resource-use efficiency of smallholder broiler farmers in general in the Capricorn District of Limpopo Province. Stochastic Frontier Production Function was used to identify the socio-economic characteristics that contribute to broiler production and to determine the level of resource-use efficiency by smallholder farmers. Value chain analysis (VCA) was used to identify value chain actors and the position of smallholder broiler farmers along the value chain. Descriptive statistic results revealed that most smallholder broiler farmers are mostly female (79%) and more than 65 % are over the age of 31. The broiler input cost analysis indicated that feed cost contributed the highest expenditure (60%) in smallholder broiler production. Socio-economic factors such as educational level, experience in broiler production, access to credit, gender, access to transport, and age, were significant at different levels and therefore affect broiler production by smallholder farmers. The study also found that farmers in the study area were underutilising their resources with resource-use efficiency varying from 97% to 8%. Several constraints that v prevent smallholder broiler farmers from accessing the high value chain markets were identified. On the basis of the findings, it is recommended in this study that efforts be made to incentivise younger and energetic farmers to participate in broiler farming, government and the private sector should invest in research in order to establish alternative cheaper feeds to help reduce overall production costs, and the need for improved access to credit in order to enhance the working capital of farmers. Furthermore, the establishment of information sharing marketing cooperatives, slaughtering, processing and packaging facilities for smallholder broiler farmers in the study area will improve access to high value chain markets.

Based on cross-sectional data drawn from 135 treated and 68 control farmers in Tanzania, and 133 treated and 71 control farmers in Zambia, this study uses propensity score matching to test whether conservation agriculture (CA) improves smallholder farmers’ welfare, in response to the policy objective of enhancing their resilience in the face of climate change. Farmers in Tanzania assess CA as having statistically significant impacts on increasing total agricultural yield, adaptation to climate change impacts, resilience to droughts, increasing maize production, enhancing household food security, increasing number of meals per day, increasing household income, accumulation of productive assets , addressing gender disparity and social cohesion, and improving soil health . However, CA had no impact on reducing the forest area cleared per year and total agricultural costs. Farmers in Zambia assess CA as having statistically significant impacts on increasing total agricultural yield , adaptation to climate change impacts, resilience to droughts, increasing maize production, enhancing household food security, increasing number of meals per day, decreasing number of food insecure months, increasing household income, accumulation of productive assets, addressing agricultural calendar bottlenecks, increasing total agricultural costs, addressing gender disparity and social cohesion, and decreasing soil health. However, CA had no impact on reducing forest area cleared per year. Policy could use such evidence to leverage CA adoption in support of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and Africa Agenda 2063, although its potential to sequester carbon and provide ecosystem services comes into question. / Dissertation (MSc Agric (Agricultural Economics))--University of Pretoria, 2021. / AERC-CMAAE / African Conversation Tillage Network / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / MSc Agric (Agricultural Economics) / Unrestricted

Thesis (M.Sc. Agriculture (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2021 / Groundnut is one of the most important agricultural crops in South Africa. It provides economic and health benefits to the society. Its production, processing and marketing provides employment to several individuals in South Africa. The objectives of the study were: to identify and describe the socio-economic characteristics of small-scale groundnut farmers, analyse the determinants of commercialization and the factors influencing the choice of market outlet in Capricorn district. The study was conducted in three villages (Ga-Maja, Ga-Mphahlele and Moletjie). Purposive sampling technique was used to select 110 small-scale groundnut farmers. Semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect data from the small-scale groundnut farmers through face-to-face interviews. The data was analysed using the descriptive statistic, Logistic Regression and Multinomial Logit model. SPSS and STATA software were used to process the data. The results indicated that quantity of groundnut produced, occupation, marital status, household size, land size, vehicle ownership, access to credit and extension contact significantly influenced the commercialization and the choice of market outlet of the small-scale groundnut farmers in the study area. The study recommends that the government in collaboration with universities and agricultural colleges as well as the private sector initiate an extension programme that will focus on small-scale farmers, rather than on emerging and commercial farmers only. This will enable the small-scale famers to get access to information on the market, production, price and other agricultural related activities. It further recommends that the Department of Agriculture visit areas where farmers produce the same type of crops and offer them incentives to pool their resources and market their produce collectively. This will improve the bargaining position of the small-scale farmers as well as the means of lowering transaction costs. / National Research Foundation (NRF)

Emerging broiler famers are faced with the challenge of acquiring contracts with the contract providers in South Africa. The question is, are these emerging farmers able to perform well financially regardless of the availability of contracts to their disposal. Profitability is one of the core issues to the development and sustainability of emerging broiler farmers. A well performing farmer is the one who is able to manage and improve the good financial performance of the farm in general. In order to determine the financial performance of the farm, financial ratios can be useful in determining and analyzing how a farm performs financially. In this study, four financial ratios are used to analyze and determine how emerging broiler farmers in Gauteng perform financially. This is done through a representative farm model which makes use of ten emerging farmers situated in the southern and northern sides of Gauteng. Out of ten emerging broiler farmers that took part in the study, the results show that only two of them are producing under contracts. This is an indication that emerging broiler farmers in Gauteng are characterized by both financial and production risk. This further implies that farmers who do not have contracts are likely to have a poor financial performance in as far as broiler enterprise is concerned. The study establishes the differences between the contract growers and the non contractors that form the representative farm model and this is achieved by looking the results of the financial ratios. The study further distinguishes the financial performances between the southern and northern sides of Gauteng which form the representative farm model. The results indicated that although 80% of the emerging broiler growers in Gauteng do not produce under contracts, they are still able to perform well financially. However the contract growers outperform the no contractors in terms of financial performance due to a well defined market structure. / Dissertation (MScAgric)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Common beans are one of the most important food and cash crops for most Malawians. The insufficient production of the crop in the country coupled with low yields has made scientists give much interest to the crop so that they can address the constraints to the productivity problems. In this regard, breeders have been engaged in the development and release of improved varieties of common beans which in most cases are disease resistant, high yielding, drought resistant, and fast cooking. Therefore it is the interest of this study to find the reasons why productivity of the crop is still low despite the release of the improved varieties. The study adopted contingent valuation (CV), a method frequently used to assess willingnessto- pay of people for non-market goods or services and this was applied to assess farmer’s willingness-to-pay for the new improved bean seed varieties which are high yielding. Double bounded dichotomous choice with an open ended follow-up format was used to obtain the household’s willingness-to-pay. In addition; the study reviewed the existing dissemination channels of bean seed to make recommendations with regard to seed supply. Descriptive statistics from the 132 households interviewed shows that the structural constraints to seed acquisition are compounded by farmers’ poverty. Otherwise, most farmers are aware of the existence of improved varieties of common bean seed and perceive that with the use of this seed, productivity can improve hence willing to pay for the good. The study is 95% confident that mean price farmers are willing to pay for improved common bean seed is between MK 527.78 and MK 591.92. Three major existing informal dissemination channels of bean seed were discovered in the study areas. Therefore there is a need for government to work in collaboration with NGOs towards ensuring a formal supply system of bean seed characterised by vertically organised production and dissemination of tested and approved seed varieties, and using strict quality control rules, so that farmers can be assured of accessing improved seed varieties. This will increase the nation’s food security. / Dissertation (MSc Agric)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Background: Context and purpose of the study. To examine (1) associations between county-level zoning to support farmers' market placement and county-level farmers' market availability, rural/urban designation, percent African American residents, and percent of residents living below poverty and (2) individual-level associations between zoning to support farmers' markets; fruit and vegetable consumption and body mass index (BMI) among a random sample of residents of six North Carolina (NC) counties. Methods: Zoning ordinances were scored to indicate supportiveness for healthy food outlets. Number of farmers' markets (per capita) was obtained from the NC-Community Transformation Grant Project Fruit and Vegetable Outlet Inventory (2013). County-level census data on rural/urban status, percent African American, and percent poverty were obtained. For data on farmers' market shopping, fruit and vegetable consumption, and BMI, trained interviewers conducted a random digit dial telephone survey of residents of six NC counties (3 urban and 3 rural). Pearson correlation coefficients and multilevel linear regression models were used to examine county-level and individual-level associations between zoning supportiveness, farmers' market availability, and fruit and vegetable consumption and BMI. Results: At the county-level, healthier food zoning was greater in more urban areas and areas with less poverty. At the individual-level, self-reported fruit and vegetable consumption was associated with healthier food zoning. Conclusions: Disparities in zoning to promote healthy eating should be further examined, and future studies should assess whether amending zoning ordinances will lead to greater availability of healthy foods and changes in dietary behavior and health outcomes.

In the South African context, a geographical region prone to the occurrence of frequent and intense periods of drought, the emergence of climate conditions reaching new extremes raises concerns of adaptability to sustain living and work well-being in such circumstances. The realisation of economic, social, environmental and psychological impacts resultant from drought conditions is particularly relevant to farmers, an occupation group who are often characterised by socio-economic vulnerability in South Africa. Consequently, this research seeks to explore the yet undocumented experiences of farmers living and working in the current drought conditions, located in the Karoo region of South Africa. A further aim of this research is to explore how these experiences have affected farmers' psychological well-being, as well as understanding the coping mechanisms they have used to deal with this long-standing crisis situation. The present study adopted an exploratory case study design using an interpretivist paradigmatic stance. Based on research conducted and reviewed within the climate change domain, it was understood that farmers' experiences of working in drought conditions were complex, context specific and differed amongst individuals. Therefore, knowledge was viewed as subjective as there was no particular, correct path to knowledge as it emerged through various contexts. The case under study was Karoo farmers in the Western Cape province. Their living and working experiences, and coping mechanisms were specific to their surrounding landscapes and chosen type of farming. Furthermore, this case study was particularly concerned with farmers who retained close living, working and cultural relationships to their natural environments. Consequently, the unit of analysis in this study was the individual. A purposive sampling strategy was adopted and a total of eight participants were interviewed. An inductive approach to analysing the data was undertaken, using Braun and Clarke's (2006) Thematic Analysis. Three major themes emerged during the analysis with a number of associated sub-themes. The results describe the sample's shared ecological grief experiences due to both implicit and explicit impacts resultant from sustained drought conditions. The negative psychological outcomes the sample endured as a result of these experiences, demonstrates the implication of living and working in such conditions for work and psychological well-being. The common coping mechanisms employed over this time are also extracted from the themes. The discussion presents the findings of this study through the lens of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach framework, to understand how drought conditions presents barriers to these farmers sustaining their well-being.

Part of this research focused on the predecessors of the FFA by outlining the history and purposes of agricultural organizations formed since the late 1700s. The past two centuries of American agricultural history is rich with efforts to educate and improve agricultural practices through organized groups of farmers and other rural leaders. Early in the development of agricultural societies, experimentation and successful practices were shared with others in the local organization and works were often published in journals or newspapers for educational and informational purposes. Regular meetings and fellowship were also a major focus of the early groups. The national organizations that formed later such as the Grange, included the fraternal, social, and educational aspects while maintaining a focus on the economics of farming. The boys’ and girls’ club movement provided opportunities for youth to meet, learn, and participate in agricultural competitions. The center of activities for youth organizations quickly shifted from community groups to agricultural education programs in the public schools. Clubs that formed within agricultural education programs in Virginia soon united to create the Future Farmers of Virginia. The FFV and FFA that followed initiated the use of certain symbols, colors, and ritual ceremonies that can be traced directly to the agricultural societies. This research identified many agricultural societies and youth clubs that had a profound influence on the development of the National FFA Organization. The major purpose of this study was to describe the establishment of the Future Farmers of American and to document the accomplishments of Virginia FFA members at the state and national levels. The objectives of the study were: To describe the historical events and circumstances that led to the establishment of the Future Farmers of Virginia and the Future Farmers of America, To document Virginia FFA history by recording achievements of members and chapters at the state level, To document the achievements of Virginia FFA members and chapters at the national level, and To provide a history of the Virginia FFA Association from 1925 to the present. The Virginia FFA Association is rich with historical information that ranges from the formation of the Future Farmers of Virginia in 1925, the forming of a national organization in 1928, and 75 years of accomplishments by Virginia FFA members. / Ph. D.