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Nas abelhas sociais Apis mellifera a determinação de castas está relacionada à nutrição diferencial durante o desenvolvimento larval. Os indivíduos são alimentados com geléia real até o terceiro estágio larval, quando aqueles que são destinados a se tornarem operárias passam a receber uma mistura de secreções glandulares, mel e pólen. O conteúdo da dieta recebida após o terceiro estágio larval ativará respostas endócrinas diferenciais que resultarão no estímulo de vias distintas de expressão gênica que culminarão no desenvolvimento de rainhas e operárias. Vários modelos de determinação de castas foram propostos envolvendo diferentes fatores que atuam sobre o desenvolvimento de cada uma, em especial o Hormônio Juvenil (HJ), as vias de sinalização por insulina/IGF e TOR (target of rapamycin) a metilação diferencial e a proteína recentemente descoberta, royalactin, que favorecem o desenvolvimento de rainhas. Para o desenvolvimento de operárias foi sugerido estímulo de outras vias de sinalização, que possivelmente envolveria a participação dos genes ultraspiracle (usp), cryptocephal (crc) e retinoid- and fatty acid-binding protein (RfaBp). Utilizando diferentes abordagens avaliamos a participação destes genes no processo que culmina no desenvolvimento das castas. Através da análise de expressão gênica em larga escala utilizando microarrays, observamos a existência de genes diferencialmente expressos em rainhas e operárias, sendo a maior que parte deles apresentou expressão preferencial em operárias. Muitos destes genes, inclusive esterase do hormônio juvenil (jhe), failed axon connections (fax), activating transcription factor-3 (atf-3), cathepsin-D (cath-D) e peptidoglycan recognition protein-SC2 (pgrp-sc2), preferencialmente expressos em operárias, estão envolvidos, segundo análises de função por Gene Ontology, em processos essenciais no desenvolvimento das castas como crescimento, reprodução, apoptose, neurogênese, degradação do hormônio juvenil, entre outros. A partir destes resultados, incluímos o gene da esterase do hormônio juvenil (jhe) em nossas análises, como um possível candidato a determinante do desenvolvimento diferencial das operárias. Além disto, foi determinado o perfil de expressão de usp, crc, RfaBp e jhe, durante o desenvolvimento de rainhas e operárias. Observamos que os maiores níveis de expressão de cada um são encontrados em fases posteriores ao período crítico de determinação de castas e que em geral, os maiores níveis de expressão são encontrados em operárias, especialmente crc, RfaBp e jhe. Para usp, os níveis são distintos em rainhas e operária apenas em pontos específicos entre o quinto estágio larval e a fase pré-pupal. Adicionalmente avaliamos a influência da diminuição, através de interferência por RNA (RNAi), dos níveis de expressão de cada um destes genes sobre os níveis dos outros genes estudados, e também sua atuação no desenvolvimento. Vimos que mesmo pequenas modificações nestes níveis inibem ou estimulam a expressão de outros genes e, em alguns casos causam alterações no desenvolvimento das abelhas. Sabendo da importância dos microRNAs (miRNAs) na regulação da expressão gênica e do desenvolvimento, avaliamos os níveis de expressão dos miRNAs preditos como reguladores de jhe. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que alguns deles, como let-7, miR-2796 e miR-263b, por apresentarem correlação negativa com os níveis do gene alvo, são realmente fortes candidatos a seus reguladores. Além disto, alterações nos níveis do gene alvo, mostraram a capacidade de alterar os níveis de expressão da maioria dos miRNAs preditos. Este resultado foi corroborado por sequenciamento em larga escala das amostras tratadas com dsjhe e controle, que apontou também outros possíveis reguladores de jhe, entre eles miR-100, miR-306 e mi-13b. Analisando os resultados obtidos de forma conjunta podemos sugerir que o desenvolvimento de operárias está sob complexa regulação que envolve a participação dos genes aqui estudados, além de outros fatores como os miRNAs. Estes genes agem de maneira coordenada, inclusive com os miRNAs, em momentos específicos do desenvolvimento atuando sobre cascatas de expressão gênica de forma a ativar ou inibir a expressão uns dos outros e também de outros genes, o que culminará no desenvolvimento diferencial de rainhas e operárias em A. mellifera. / In Apis mellifera, a eusocial bee, caste determination during larval development is regulated by differential nutrition. All female larvae are fed royal jelly until the third larval stage, when the workerdestined ones have their diet switched to a gland secretion mix, honey and pollen, Queen-destined larvae, however, are provisioned with a rich diet throughout development. Changes in diet after the third developmental stage modulate larval endocrine responses and different nutritional regimes trigger distinct patterns of gene expression. Thus, nutritional regulation of specific signaling pathways controls development of worker and queen phenotypes. Several proposed models of this process involve caste-specific regulation of hormonal and nutritional factors and/or molecular processes including Juvenile Hormone (JH), insulin/IGF and TOR (target of rapamycin) signaling pathways, differential methylation and the newly discovered protein royalactin, which facilitates queen development. Previous research has also suggested the stimulus of other factors in signaling pathways that acts towards workers development, and they possibly involves the participation of some genes like ultraspiracle (usp), cryptocephal (crc), and retinoid- and fatty acid-binding protein (RfaBp). Using diverse molecular approaches, we evaluate the role of these genes in caste differentiation. We used microarrays to characterize global differences in gene expression between queen and worker larvae. Functional analysis of significantly, differentially expressed genes identified fundamental biological processes including growth, reproduction, apoptosis, neurogenesis and JH degradation that are involved in caste differentiation. Based on these findings, we selected several candidate genes including juvenile hormone esterase (jhe), failed axon connections (fax), activating transcription factor-3 (atf-3), cathepsin-D (cath-D), and peptidoglycan recognition protein-SC2 (pgrp-sc2) for investigation. Notably, these genes were preferentially upregulated in workers. In a separate experiment, we monitored expression of usp, crc, RfaBp and jhe, in queen and worker larval during stages critical to caste determination. In general, workers expressed crc, RfaBp and jhe at higher levels than queens. For usp, distinct expression levels between worker- and queen-destined larvae were observed only at specific points between the 5th larval stage and pre-pupal phase. Additionally we used RNA interference (RNAi) to monitor the impact of decreased levels of select candidate genes on larval development. We found that even small modification of gene expression levels inhibited or triggered expression of other genes, and, in some cases, caused developmental alterations. Furthermore, microRNAs (miRNAs) are also important regulators of gene expression during development and we identified miRNAs that were predicted jhe regulators and assessed their levels. Results determined that some miRNAs including let-7, miR-2796 e miR-263b were strong candidates for jhe regulation because they were significantly and negatively correlated with target gene expression levels. Furthermore, manipulation of target gene expression levels altered expression of most predicted miRNAs. These results were confirmed by deep sequencing of RNAi samples treated with double-stranded RNA for jhe gene (dsjhe) and controls (with no treatment) which also identified other candidate jhe regulators, like miR-100, miR-306 and mi-13b. Taken together, these results suggest that worker development is regulated by complex interactions that involve usp, crc, RfaBp and jhe in addition to other molecules, including miRNAs. These molecular participants coordinate development at specific time points by regulating activity of gene networks and each other, producing the differential development of workers and queens in A. mellifera.

Classically, endogenous fatty acid ethanolamides and their derivatives that bind to the cannabinoid receptors and trigger a signalling pathway are referred to as endocannabinoids. Although derivatives of arachidonic acid, including arachidonylethanolamine or anandamide, are the known endogenous ligands for cannabinoid receptors, other fatty acid ethanolamides or N-acylethanolamines (NAE) that vary in carbon chain length and saturation occur ubiquitously in eukaryotic organisms and play an important role in their physiology and development. The metabolic pathway for NAEs is highly conserved among eukaryotes and well characterised in mammalian systems. Although NAE pathway is only partly elucidated in plants, significant progress has been made in the past 20 years in understanding the implications of the metabolism of saturated and unsaturated endocannabinoid-like molecules in plant development and growth. The latest advancements in the field of plant endocannabinoid research are reviewed. Key Concepts Endocannabinoids are endogenous ligands of cannabinoid receptors in mammalian systems. Endocannabinoids belong to a class of small bioactive lipid molecules that are derivatives of fatty acids including their ethanolamides, referred to as N-acylethanolamines. N-Acylethanolamines are ubiquitous and their metabolic pathway is highly conserved among eukaryotes. In higher plants, only 12–18C N-acylethanolamines have been identified and their metabolic pathway is partly elucidated. The endocannabinoid-like lipids play an important role in seed germination, seedling development, flowering and cellular organisation. In plants, N-acylethanolamines also participate in mediating responses to biotic and abiotic stress.

Orientadores: Anibal Eugenio Vercesi, Karina Gottardello Zecchin / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-15T13:27:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rossato_FrancoAparecido_M.pdf: 961339 bytes, checksum: eb647604d3856b3e12d36a8143d26540 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Ácido graxo sintase (FASN - EC 2.3.1.85) é a enzima responsável pela síntese endógena de ácidos graxos de cadeia longa a partir dos precursores acetil-CoA e malonil-CoA. Diversos estudos mostram que a FASN é altamente expressa em vários tipos de neoplasias malignas humanas, tais como de próstata, mama, melanoma e, em alguns destes tumores, a alta expressão de FASN está associada a um pior prognóstico. O tratamento com inibidores específicos de FASN, como cerulenina, C75 e orlistat, diminui a capacidade de proliferação e induz apoptose em linhagens celulares derivadas de neoplasias malignas de próstata, mama e cólon, porém pouco se sabe sobre os efeitos desses inibidores em células não tumorais. Recentemente mostramos que a inibição de FASN com orlistat reduz a proliferação e induz apoptose em células B16-F10 de melanoma murino (Carvalho et al. 2008). Considerando que (1) pouco é conhecido sobre os efeitos de inibidores de FASN em células "normais", inclusive melanócitos e (2) dados iniciais mostram que o tratamento com orlistat ou cerulenina também induz elevados níveis de apoptose em células "normais", este estudo teve por objetivo principal verificar os mecanismos envolvidos na morte induzida pela inibição da FASN em linhagem celular não-tumorigênica derivada de melanoblastos de camundongos (melan-a). O tratamento in vitro de células melan-a com 5 µg/mL de cerulenina ou com 30 µM de orlistat induziu expressiva porcentagem de apoptose, mas não necrose. As células tratadas também apresentaram redução da proliferação, além de discretas ativação de caspase-3 e liberação de citocromo c. Como o silenciamento de FASN através de RNA de interferência (RNAi) não resultou em apoptose, investigamos o possível envolvimento mitocondrial na morte induzida pelos inibidores de FASN. De fato, o tratamento com cerulenina ou orlistat resultou em diminuição do ??m, além de mais de 50% de inibição da velocidade de respiração das melana no estado de repouso. Paralelamente também foi constatado que esses mesmos inibidores de FASN induzem apoptose e reduzem a proliferação de células derivadas de queratinócitos não tumorigênicos, HaCaT. O presente trabalho mostra, portanto, que os inibidores de FASN, cerulenina e orlistat, apresentam efeitos nocivos sobre células não tumorais, conseqüência da ação sobre a respiração mitocondrial. / Abstract: Fatty acid synthase (FASN - EC 2.3.1.85) is the enzyme responsible for endogenous synthesis of long chain fatty acid palmitate derivate from precursors acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA. Studies have shown that FASN is highly expressed in several types of human malignancies, such as prostate, breast, melanoma, and in some of these tumors, high expression of FASN is associated with a poor prognosis. FASN inhibitors, such as cerulenin, C75, and orlistat, decrease cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in prostate, breast, and colon tumor cells lines. Recently we demonstrated that inhibition of FASN with orlistat reduced proliferation and induced apoptosis in cells B16-F10 murine melanoma (Carvalho et al. 2008). Consider that (1) little is known about the effects of FASN inhibitors in normal cells, including melanocytes and (2) previous data show that treatment with orlistat or cerulenin also induces high levels of apoptosis in normal cells, the aim of this study was to analyze the mechanisms involved in FASN inhibitioninduced cell death in cell line derived from non-tumorigenic mice melanoblasts (melana). In vitro treatment of melan-a cells with 5 µg/mL cerulenin or 30 µM orlistat induced a significant percentage of apoptosis, but not necrosis. Treated cells also showed reduced proliferation, and moderate activation of caspase-3 and release of cytochrome c. As FASN silencing through RNA interference (RNAi) did not result in apoptosis, we investigated the possible involvement of mitochondria in FASN inhibition-induced cell death. Cerulenin or orlistat treatment of melan-a cells decreased ?? m and inhibited more than 50% the respiration rate in rest state. We also detected significant apoptosis and reduced proliferation in cells derived from non-tumorigenic keratinocyte, HaCaT, after incubation with the same FASN inhibitors. In conclusion, this study shows that FASN inhibitors, cerulenin and orlistat, have adverse effects on non-tumor cells, as a consequence of direct action on mitochondrial respiration. / Mestrado / Biologia Estrutural, Celular, Molecular e do Desenvolvimento / Mestre em Fisiopatologia Médica

Nas abelhas sociais Apis mellifera a determinação de castas está relacionada à nutrição diferencial durante o desenvolvimento larval. Os indivíduos são alimentados com geléia real até o terceiro estágio larval, quando aqueles que são destinados a se tornarem operárias passam a receber uma mistura de secreções glandulares, mel e pólen. O conteúdo da dieta recebida após o terceiro estágio larval ativará respostas endócrinas diferenciais que resultarão no estímulo de vias distintas de expressão gênica que culminarão no desenvolvimento de rainhas e operárias. Vários modelos de determinação de castas foram propostos envolvendo diferentes fatores que atuam sobre o desenvolvimento de cada uma, em especial o Hormônio Juvenil (HJ), as vias de sinalização por insulina/IGF e TOR (target of rapamycin) a metilação diferencial e a proteína recentemente descoberta, royalactin, que favorecem o desenvolvimento de rainhas. Para o desenvolvimento de operárias foi sugerido estímulo de outras vias de sinalização, que possivelmente envolveria a participação dos genes ultraspiracle (usp), cryptocephal (crc) e retinoid- and fatty acid-binding protein (RfaBp). Utilizando diferentes abordagens avaliamos a participação destes genes no processo que culmina no desenvolvimento das castas. Através da análise de expressão gênica em larga escala utilizando microarrays, observamos a existência de genes diferencialmente expressos em rainhas e operárias, sendo a maior que parte deles apresentou expressão preferencial em operárias. Muitos destes genes, inclusive esterase do hormônio juvenil (jhe), failed axon connections (fax), activating transcription factor-3 (atf-3), cathepsin-D (cath-D) e peptidoglycan recognition protein-SC2 (pgrp-sc2), preferencialmente expressos em operárias, estão envolvidos, segundo análises de função por Gene Ontology, em processos essenciais no desenvolvimento das castas como crescimento, reprodução, apoptose, neurogênese, degradação do hormônio juvenil, entre outros. A partir destes resultados, incluímos o gene da esterase do hormônio juvenil (jhe) em nossas análises, como um possível candidato a determinante do desenvolvimento diferencial das operárias. Além disto, foi determinado o perfil de expressão de usp, crc, RfaBp e jhe, durante o desenvolvimento de rainhas e operárias. Observamos que os maiores níveis de expressão de cada um são encontrados em fases posteriores ao período crítico de determinação de castas e que em geral, os maiores níveis de expressão são encontrados em operárias, especialmente crc, RfaBp e jhe. Para usp, os níveis são distintos em rainhas e operária apenas em pontos específicos entre o quinto estágio larval e a fase pré-pupal. Adicionalmente avaliamos a influência da diminuição, através de interferência por RNA (RNAi), dos níveis de expressão de cada um destes genes sobre os níveis dos outros genes estudados, e também sua atuação no desenvolvimento. Vimos que mesmo pequenas modificações nestes níveis inibem ou estimulam a expressão de outros genes e, em alguns casos causam alterações no desenvolvimento das abelhas. Sabendo da importância dos microRNAs (miRNAs) na regulação da expressão gênica e do desenvolvimento, avaliamos os níveis de expressão dos miRNAs preditos como reguladores de jhe. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que alguns deles, como let-7, miR-2796 e miR-263b, por apresentarem correlação negativa com os níveis do gene alvo, são realmente fortes candidatos a seus reguladores. Além disto, alterações nos níveis do gene alvo, mostraram a capacidade de alterar os níveis de expressão da maioria dos miRNAs preditos. Este resultado foi corroborado por sequenciamento em larga escala das amostras tratadas com dsjhe e controle, que apontou também outros possíveis reguladores de jhe, entre eles miR-100, miR-306 e mi-13b. Analisando os resultados obtidos de forma conjunta podemos sugerir que o desenvolvimento de operárias está sob complexa regulação que envolve a participação dos genes aqui estudados, além de outros fatores como os miRNAs. Estes genes agem de maneira coordenada, inclusive com os miRNAs, em momentos específicos do desenvolvimento atuando sobre cascatas de expressão gênica de forma a ativar ou inibir a expressão uns dos outros e também de outros genes, o que culminará no desenvolvimento diferencial de rainhas e operárias em A. mellifera. / In Apis mellifera, a eusocial bee, caste determination during larval development is regulated by differential nutrition. All female larvae are fed royal jelly until the third larval stage, when the workerdestined ones have their diet switched to a gland secretion mix, honey and pollen, Queen-destined larvae, however, are provisioned with a rich diet throughout development. Changes in diet after the third developmental stage modulate larval endocrine responses and different nutritional regimes trigger distinct patterns of gene expression. Thus, nutritional regulation of specific signaling pathways controls development of worker and queen phenotypes. Several proposed models of this process involve caste-specific regulation of hormonal and nutritional factors and/or molecular processes including Juvenile Hormone (JH), insulin/IGF and TOR (target of rapamycin) signaling pathways, differential methylation and the newly discovered protein royalactin, which facilitates queen development. Previous research has also suggested the stimulus of other factors in signaling pathways that acts towards workers development, and they possibly involves the participation of some genes like ultraspiracle (usp), cryptocephal (crc), and retinoid- and fatty acid-binding protein (RfaBp). Using diverse molecular approaches, we evaluate the role of these genes in caste differentiation. We used microarrays to characterize global differences in gene expression between queen and worker larvae. Functional analysis of significantly, differentially expressed genes identified fundamental biological processes including growth, reproduction, apoptosis, neurogenesis and JH degradation that are involved in caste differentiation. Based on these findings, we selected several candidate genes including juvenile hormone esterase (jhe), failed axon connections (fax), activating transcription factor-3 (atf-3), cathepsin-D (cath-D), and peptidoglycan recognition protein-SC2 (pgrp-sc2) for investigation. Notably, these genes were preferentially upregulated in workers. In a separate experiment, we monitored expression of usp, crc, RfaBp and jhe, in queen and worker larval during stages critical to caste determination. In general, workers expressed crc, RfaBp and jhe at higher levels than queens. For usp, distinct expression levels between worker- and queen-destined larvae were observed only at specific points between the 5th larval stage and pre-pupal phase. Additionally we used RNA interference (RNAi) to monitor the impact of decreased levels of select candidate genes on larval development. We found that even small modification of gene expression levels inhibited or triggered expression of other genes, and, in some cases, caused developmental alterations. Furthermore, microRNAs (miRNAs) are also important regulators of gene expression during development and we identified miRNAs that were predicted jhe regulators and assessed their levels. Results determined that some miRNAs including let-7, miR-2796 e miR-263b were strong candidates for jhe regulation because they were significantly and negatively correlated with target gene expression levels. Furthermore, manipulation of target gene expression levels altered expression of most predicted miRNAs. These results were confirmed by deep sequencing of RNAi samples treated with double-stranded RNA for jhe gene (dsjhe) and controls (with no treatment) which also identified other candidate jhe regulators, like miR-100, miR-306 and mi-13b. Taken together, these results suggest that worker development is regulated by complex interactions that involve usp, crc, RfaBp and jhe in addition to other molecules, including miRNAs. These molecular participants coordinate development at specific time points by regulating activity of gene networks and each other, producing the differential development of workers and queens in A. mellifera.

Orientadores: Anibal Eugênio Vercesi, Karina Gottardelo Zecchin / Texto em português e inglês / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-24T16:40:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rossato_FrancoAparecido_D.pdf: 7526681 bytes, checksum: 3768c017da7bde02ddd95e8e41881438 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Resumo: Recentemente mostramos que os inibidores da enzima ácido graxo sintase (FASN - EC 2.3.1.85), cerulenina e orlistat, reduzem a proliferação e induzem apoptose em células B16-F10 de melanoma murino via mecanismos mitocondriais. Neste presente estudo investigamos os efeitos desses inibidores de FASN em linhagem celular não-tumorigênica derivada de melanoblastos de camundongos (melan-a). O tratamento in vitro de células melan-a com 5 µg/mL de cerulenina ou com 30 µM de orlistat inibiu a proliferação celular, com acúmulo da proteína supressora de tumor p21WAF1/Cip1, assim como induziu a via intrínseca da apoptose com liberação de citocromo c e ativação de caspases-3 e -9, sem ativação da caspase-8. Os inibidores de FASN não alteram o conteúdo de ácidos graxos livres nas células melan-a, verificados por espectrometria de massas, sugerindo que o tratamento com cerulenina ou orlistat induz apoptose independente da inibição desta enzima. Análise das funções da bioenergética mitocondrial das células melan-a mostraram inibição da respiração, seguido por aumento da produção de superóxido. A inibição da respiração, promovida pelo tratamento com cerulenina ou orlistat, foi restrita à oxidação de substratos ligados a NADH (39,9% DMSO x cerulenina; ou 60,8% EtOH x orlistat) e succinato (45,8% DMSO x cerulenina; ou 51,8% EtOH x orlistat), e não foi significativa quando as mitocôndrias estavam respirando com substrato do complexo IV, N,N,N',N'-tetrametil-p-fenilenodiamina. A proteção conferida pelo sequestrador de radicais livres N-acetil cisteína (NAC) sugere que a disfunção mitocondrial provocada por estes compostos está associada a estresse oxidativo e é provável que seja mediada pela ação de superóxido na cadeia respiratória nos níveis de complexos de I e II. Análise proteômica de mitocôndria dessas células também mostra alterações ligadas ao estresse oxidativo. Nossos dados em conjunto sugerem que cerulenina e orlistat induzem apoptose em células não tumorais como resultado de uma disfunção mitocondrial e de maneira independente de FASN / Abstract: We have previously reported that the fatty acid synthase (FASN) inhibitors, cerulenin or orlistat, induce apoptosis in B16-F10 mouse melanoma cells mediated by mitochondria. Here we investigate the effects of these inhibitors on the non-tumorigenic mouse cell line melan-a. Cerulenin or orlistat treatment decreased cells proliferation, accompanied by increased amounts of the tumor suppressor protein p21WAF1/Cip1, as well as induced apoptosis, but not necrosis, in melan-a cell line. Mitochondrial cytochrome c release and activation of caspases-9 and -3 were detected in melan-a-treated cells. siRNAi for FASN did not culminate in apoptosis, and FASN inhibitors treatment did not alter free fatty acids content in the non-tumorigenic cells, as verified by mass spectrometry, suggesting that cerulenin or orlistat induces apoptosis independent on FASN inhibition. Analysis of energy-linked functions of melan-a mitochondria showed inhibition of respiration followed by large stimulation of superoxide production. Respiratory inhibition after cerulenin or orlistat treatment, respectively, was restricted to the oxidation of NADH-linked substrates (39.9 or 60,8%) and succinate (45.8 or 51.8%) and was not significant when mitochondria were respiring on the complex IV substrate, N,N,N?,N?-tetramethyl-p-phenylendiamine. The protection conferred by the free radical scavenger NAC suggests that the mitochondrial dysfunction caused by these compounds is associated with oxidative stress and is mediated by the action of superoxide on the respiratory chain at the levels of complexes-I and II. Proteomic analysis of mitochondria melan-a cells also indicate major changes linked to oxidative stress. Taken together, the present results show that cerulenin or orlistat induces apoptosis in non-tumorigenic cells via mitochondrial dysfunction, independent on FASN inhibition / Doutorado / Fisiopatologia Médica / Doutor em Ciências

Biofumigation is an important crop protection practice that uses a plant’s natural defence mechanisms to control agricultural crop pathogens and diseases. Glucosinolates are volatile compounds found in most Brassica species and when hydrolysed, it forms a range of natural toxins including isothiocyanates that act as biofumigants. Research suggests that biofumigation is a good alternative to chemical fumigants as it is effective in controlling plant pests but with lower health and environmental risks. Several studies have confirmed the effectiveness of the breakdown products, especially isothiocyanates, as fungicidal, bactericidal and nematicidal products against a series of plant pests. However, very little information is available on the effects of glucosinolates and its breakdown products on non-target and beneficial soil organisms. Negative effects on beneficial soil organisms can have serious negative impacts on soil quality especially when essential ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and soil bioturbation are affected. Three biofumigants, broccoli, mustard and oilseed radish, and two chemical fumigants, metham sodium and cadusafos, were investigated for possible effects on non-target and essential soil organisms such as earthworms and the soil microbial community. Sublethal endpoints, including growth and reproductive success of the earthworms, were monitored. The genotoxicity of the biologically active compounds found in the fumigants, towards earthworms, was evaluated by means of the comet assay. The DNA damage was quantified by tail intensity parameters. Furthermore, the changes in the soil microbial community function and structure were evaluated by means of community level physiological profiling (CLPP) and phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analyses respectively. All exposures were done in artificial soil prepared according to the OECD standard guidelines. In the biofumigant treated soils, results varied and different effects were observed on the non-target soil organisms. Broccoli reduced cocoon production and the number of hatchlings while mustard induced more DNA strand breaks in earthworm cells compared to the control. All the biofumigants stimulated microbial growth but broccoli and oilseed radish changed the microbial functional diversity. Mustard had no lasting effect on the functional diversity but altered the microbial community structure. The chemical fumigants had a marked negative impact on the survival, growth, reproduction and the genotoxicity of the earthworms with metham sodium causing greater harm than cadusafos. The effects on the microbial community varied. Both chemicals had an inhibitory effect on the microbial growth in terms of the viable biomass determined by PLFA and the average well colour development in the Biolog™ Ecoplates. No lasting effects were observed in the community structure. Overall, cadusafos had a more pronounced effect on the microbial community functional diversity than metham sodium. Results indicated that each bioindicator species illustrates effects at their own level of organisation / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Biofumigation is an important crop protection practice that uses a plant’s natural defence mechanisms to control agricultural crop pathogens and diseases. Glucosinolates are volatile compounds found in most Brassica species and when hydrolysed, it forms a range of natural toxins including isothiocyanates that act as biofumigants. Research suggests that biofumigation is a good alternative to chemical fumigants as it is effective in controlling plant pests but with lower health and environmental risks. Several studies have confirmed the effectiveness of the breakdown products, especially isothiocyanates, as fungicidal, bactericidal and nematicidal products against a series of plant pests. However, very little information is available on the effects of glucosinolates and its breakdown products on non-target and beneficial soil organisms. Negative effects on beneficial soil organisms can have serious negative impacts on soil quality especially when essential ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling and soil bioturbation are affected. Three biofumigants, broccoli, mustard and oilseed radish, and two chemical fumigants, metham sodium and cadusafos, were investigated for possible effects on non-target and essential soil organisms such as earthworms and the soil microbial community. Sublethal endpoints, including growth and reproductive success of the earthworms, were monitored. The genotoxicity of the biologically active compounds found in the fumigants, towards earthworms, was evaluated by means of the comet assay. The DNA damage was quantified by tail intensity parameters. Furthermore, the changes in the soil microbial community function and structure were evaluated by means of community level physiological profiling (CLPP) and phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analyses respectively. All exposures were done in artificial soil prepared according to the OECD standard guidelines. In the biofumigant treated soils, results varied and different effects were observed on the non-target soil organisms. Broccoli reduced cocoon production and the number of hatchlings while mustard induced more DNA strand breaks in earthworm cells compared to the control. All the biofumigants stimulated microbial growth but broccoli and oilseed radish changed the microbial functional diversity. Mustard had no lasting effect on the functional diversity but altered the microbial community structure. The chemical fumigants had a marked negative impact on the survival, growth, reproduction and the genotoxicity of the earthworms with metham sodium causing greater harm than cadusafos. The effects on the microbial community varied. Both chemicals had an inhibitory effect on the microbial growth in terms of the viable biomass determined by PLFA and the average well colour development in the Biolog™ Ecoplates. No lasting effects were observed in the community structure. Overall, cadusafos had a more pronounced effect on the microbial community functional diversity than metham sodium. Results indicated that each bioindicator species illustrates effects at their own level of organisation / MSc (Environmental Sciences), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Chemical Engineering / Peter H. Pfromm / Mary E. Rezac / Multiphase reactions are often constrained by mass transfer limitations which in many cases lead to low reaction rates and undesirable product distribution. Here we fabricate integral-asymmetric polymeric membranes decorated with metal catalysts, to supply hydrogen directly at or near the surface of the catalyst, thus minimizing mass-transfer limitations. The metal decorated polymeric membranes were used for partial hydrogenation of soybean oil with the goal to minimize trans fatty acid (TFA) formation. It was discovered that polymeric membranes with “defective” metal coatings are well suited to achieve low-TFA hydrogenation of soybean oil at quite moderate process conditions. The metal decorated polymeric membranes studied produced significantly lower trans fatty acid as compared to traditional reactors (3.5 wt% at an Iodine Value of 95 as compared to 8 wt% in slurry reactor), at pressures and temperatures which are compatible with the existing systems. The process concept is simpler than some of the alternatives being studied and no catalyst recovery from the oil is needed since the catalyst is immobilized on the membrane. Metal decorated polymeric membranes having a variety of hydrogen fluxes, skin defects, and catalyst loadings were evaluated. All the metal decorated polymeric membranes evaluated produced low TFA. Membranes with high hydrogen fluxes resulted in higher hydrogenation rates but had little influence on TFA formation. Membranes with higher catalyst loadings resulted in lower TFA but increased saturate formation. Metal decorated polymeric membranes behaved differently to changes in temperature and pressures when compared to traditional slurry reactors. They showed a minor increase in TFA with temperature (50-90 °C) as compared to traditional slurry reactors. The hydrogenation rate and cis-trans isomerization also showed a modest dependence on pressure. Due to the defective nature of the metal layer on the polymeric membrane skin and the low temperatures (50-90 °C) at which the reactor is operating, the hydrogen permeability of metals has a minor influence on hydrogenation reaction. A range of metal catalysts can be used for the given system. Repeat runs using the same membrane showed a decrease in hydrogenation activity, without any change in isomerization or hydrogenation selectivity. Initial results indicate the decreased activity may not be from leaching of catalyst from membrane surface nor from sulfur poisoning.

Dietary fat has long been implicated in the etiology of metabolic and cardiovascular disease, and both the amount of fat and the fatty acid composition of the diet play a role in disease progression. Although national health organizations have set guidelines for the recommended intake of dietary fats, questions remain regarding the optimal dietary lipid profile for maintaining health and improving disease conditions. Whether certain types of fatty acids from plant-based oils can improve metabolic and vascular disease has been studied and debated, but not fully determined. In this study, we investigated the role of dietary fatty acids from plant-based oils, and examined their effects on metabolic and vascular disease parameters. Obese fa/fa Zucker rats were fed a diet containing flaxseed oil, which resulted in smaller adipocytes and decreased adipose tissue T-cell infiltration. Obese-prone Sprague Dawley rats were fed high-fat diets with different proportions of mono- and polyunsaturated fats. Changes were observed in adipose tissue levels of fatty acid synthase, adiponectin and fatty acid receptors GPR41 and GPR43, but other metabolic and inflammatory mediators in adipose tissue and serum remained stable. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the impact of n3 fatty acids on major cardiovascular endpoints showed that little evidence exists to support their role in peripheral arterial disease. Then again, very few studies on this topic have been conducted. To address this research gap, a clinical trial was designed to investigate the effects of a dietary intervention on blood vessel properties in people with peripheral arterial disease. Participants in the Canola-PAD Study consumed 25 g/day of canola oil or a Western diet oil mixture as part of their usual diet for 8 weeks. Although the intervention altered phospholipid fatty acids, vascular function, the lipid profile and inflammatory markers stayed relatively stable. Overall, this research demonstrates that dietary fatty acids from plant-based oils can be immunomodulatory, but at the physiological doses tested they are not potent mediators of functional changes in obesity or vascular physiology. / October 2015