More than 2.7 billion people have less than US$2 a day on which to live. The world's 358 richest people have more money than the combined annual incomes of countries with 45% of the world's population. Traditionally social and political philosophy has focused on intra-national issues and institutions. But the fact that the world is becoming increasingly interconnected raises an important philosophical question: To what, if anything, are the global poor entitled? This book does two things. First, it argues that to be legitimate, the global institutional system must do what it can to enable people to meet some of their basic needs. Second, it considers which ways of altering the global institutional system might make it more legitimate.

In his well-known 1972 article, "Famine, Affluence, and Morality," and in subsequent books, Peter Singer argues that we can and should prevent the needless suffering and death of the global poor by giving to foreign aid. This call for charity and assistance is mostly uncontroversial. However, foreign aid's effectiveness is highly contested among the aid literature. As the first part of this paper shows, all aid encounters inefficiencies, with the major problems being diversion of funds and perverse incentives. I look at each of these in turn, concluding that most aid is ineffective and sometimes even harmful—with the possible exception of short-term humanitarian aid. Consideration of aid evaluation and emerging forms of aid like microfinance and unconditional cash transfers provides no solution to aid's problems. In the second part of the paper I consider potentially superior methods for preventing the suffering and death of the global poor. Free trade, open immigration, and increased consumption all seem like promising ways to alleviate poverty and grow developing economies, but only increased consumption of disposable luxury goods fulfills Singer's obligation for the individual to prevent bad things from happening. To show that this idea stands, the rest of the paper will focus on increased consumption's relation to manufacturing, so-called sweatshop labor, economic growth, and alleviation of poverty. Finally, I will address potential limitations and objections to my approach, concluding that consumption of disposable luxury goods is the best way to fulfill Singer's obligation to aid the global poor.

Esta tese consiste em três estudos que investigam os impactos políticos do investimento em ajuda externa, assim como as estratégias de alocação interna por parte dos líderes dos países receptores. Explorando diferentes níveis de análise e conjuntos de países, eles buscam contribuir com o entendimento de escolhas estratégicas feitas por parte dos países doadores e por parte dos países recipientes. O capítulo 1 explora como líderes locais utilizam recursos de ajuda externa para se perpetuar no poder. Os resultados mostram que, em eleições competitivas, líderes direcionam recursos com o objetivo de ampliar sua base para além dos core voters. Quando as eleições não são competitivas, os líderes têm menos motivos para duvidar de sua sobrevivência eleitoral e direcionam recursos para distritos de sua etnia. A disponibilidade de informações sobre ajuda externa em nível sub-nacional é rara, e esse estudo toma proveito da liberação de novas bases de dados que sistematizam os investimentos chineses na África. O capítulo 2 adota um nível de análise mais tradicional nos estudos de ajuda externa. Utilizando-se dados de 155 países entre 1960 e 2011, ele investiga se o investimento em ajuda externa tem efeitos heterogêneos em países com regimes democráticos e autoritários. Os resultados demonstram que países democráticos alocam ajuda de maneira mais efetiva do que países autoritários, mas as estimativas apresentam volatilidade. O capítulo 3 investiga o possível impacto da ajuda externa sobre a intensidade de conflitos civis. Em países com menor grau de institucionalização, investimentos em ajuda externa podem ser utilizados como uma ferramenta para fortalecer facções que estão no poder. O trabalho usa uma estimação em dois estágios para calcular o impacto dos fluxos de ajuda sobre a probabilidade de intensificação do conflito. Os resultados mostram que a ajuda externa pode contribuir para transformar pequenos conflitos em conflitos maiores, mas não dão evidência de que ela cria conflitos em países anteriormente pacíficos. / This thesis consists of three studies that investigate the political impacts of foreign aid investment, as well as the internal allocation strategies by the leaders of the recipient countries. Exploring different levels of analysis and sets of countries, they seek to contribute to the understanding of strategic choices made by donor countries and recipient leaders. Chapter 1 explores how local leaders use foreign aid resources to perpetuate themselves in power. The findings show that in competitive elections, leaders direct resources to broaden their base beyond core voters. When elections are not competitive, leaders have less reason to doubt their political survival and direct resources to their ethnic districts. The availability of foreign aid information at the sub-national level is rare, and this study takes advantage of the release of new databases that systematize Chinese investments in Africa. Chapter 2 adopts a more traditional level of analysis in foreign aid studies. Using data from 155 countries between 1960 and 2011, it investigates whether investment in foreign aid has heterogeneous effects in countries with democratic and authoritarian regimes. The results demonstrate that democratic countries allocate aid more effectively than authoritarian countries, but the estimates present robustness problems. Chapter 3 investigates the possible impact of foreign aid on the intensity of civil conflict. In countries with a lower degree of institutionalization, foreign aid investments can be used as a tool to strengthen factions in power. The paper uses a two-stage estimation to calculate the impact of aid flows on the likelihood of conflict escalation. The results show that foreign aid can contribute to turning small conflicts into major conflicts, but they do not give evidence that it creates conflicts in previously peaceful countries.

Esta tese consiste em três estudos que investigam os impactos políticos do investimento em ajuda externa, assim como as estratégias de alocação interna por parte dos líderes dos países receptores. Explorando diferentes níveis de análise e conjuntos de países, eles buscam contribuir com o entendimento de escolhas estratégicas feitas por parte dos países doadores e por parte dos países recipientes. O capítulo 1 explora como líderes locais utilizam recursos de ajuda externa para se perpetuar no poder. Os resultados mostram que, em eleições competitivas, líderes direcionam recursos com o objetivo de ampliar sua base para além dos core voters. Quando as eleições não são competitivas, os líderes têm menos motivos para duvidar de sua sobrevivência eleitoral e direcionam recursos para distritos de sua etnia. A disponibilidade de informações sobre ajuda externa em nível sub-nacional é rara, e esse estudo toma proveito da liberação de novas bases de dados que sistematizam os investimentos chineses na África. O capítulo 2 adota um nível de análise mais tradicional nos estudos de ajuda externa. Utilizando-se dados de 155 países entre 1960 e 2011, ele investiga se o investimento em ajuda externa tem efeitos heterogêneos em países com regimes democráticos e autoritários. Os resultados demonstram que países democráticos alocam ajuda de maneira mais efetiva do que países autoritários, mas as estimativas apresentam volatilidade. O capítulo 3 investiga o possível impacto da ajuda externa sobre a intensidade de conflitos civis. Em países com menor grau de institucionalização, investimentos em ajuda externa podem ser utilizados como uma ferramenta para fortalecer facções que estão no poder. O trabalho usa uma estimação em dois estágios para calcular o impacto dos fluxos de ajuda sobre a probabilidade de intensificação do conflito. Os resultados mostram que a ajuda externa pode contribuir para transformar pequenos conflitos em conflitos maiores, mas não dão evidência de que ela cria conflitos em países anteriormente pacíficos. / This thesis consists of three studies that investigate the political impacts of foreign aid investment, as well as the internal allocation strategies by the leaders of the recipient countries. Exploring different levels of analysis and sets of countries, they seek to contribute to the understanding of strategic choices made by donor countries and recipient leaders. Chapter 1 explores how local leaders use foreign aid resources to perpetuate themselves in power. The findings show that in competitive elections, leaders direct resources to broaden their base beyond core voters. When elections are not competitive, leaders have less reason to doubt their political survival and direct resources to their ethnic districts. The availability of foreign aid information at the sub-national level is rare, and this study takes advantage of the release of new databases that systematize Chinese investments in Africa. Chapter 2 adopts a more traditional level of analysis in foreign aid studies. Using data from 155 countries between 1960 and 2011, it investigates whether investment in foreign aid has heterogeneous effects in countries with democratic and authoritarian regimes. The results demonstrate that democratic countries allocate aid more effectively than authoritarian countries, but the estimates present robustness problems. Chapter 3 investigates the possible impact of foreign aid on the intensity of civil conflict. In countries with a lower degree of institutionalization, foreign aid investments can be used as a tool to strengthen factions in power. The paper uses a two-stage estimation to calculate the impact of aid flows on the likelihood of conflict escalation. The results show that foreign aid can contribute to turning small conflicts into major conflicts, but they do not give evidence that it creates conflicts in previously peaceful countries.

Many countries use aid as a political tool, but Japan is unique in that foreign aid is one of its most important foreign policy tools. Drawing from literature on donor motivations for aid-giving, this paper argues that the neo-realist view of aid-giving offers the best explanation for why Japan provides aid. More specifically, Japan’s aid-giving is motivated by its pursuit of economic and strategic goals. This underlying motive for aid-giving necessarily impacts how Japan provides aid and how it uses aid to respond to human rights violations in recipient countries.

1. It is now generally accepted that conservation is an important consideration for developing countries. (l. 1 & 1.2) 2. This has been made clear in the World Conservation Strategy, published in 1980, which sets out the essential link between conservation and development. Three conservation objectives are identified: - Maintenance of essential ecological processes - Preservation of genetic diversity - Ensuring sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems (1.3) 3. Foreign aid donors have recognised the importance of conservation considerations in their aid programs. The World Bank has had an environmental program since 1970 and USAID since 1975. The emphasis has shifted from the environmental impact of projects towards projects intended to bring conservation benefits. Interest has recently been directed toward biological diversity and wildlands. (1.4) 4. Although Australia has significant expertise in conservation, only in the last couple of years has interest in the conservation aspects of Australia's development assistance program been expressed. Australian support for the World conservation Strategy indicates that conservation concerns should be included in the aid program. (1.5) 5. Conservation and environmental assessment should be an integral part of the processes of project appraisal and evaluation. The techniques used in appraisal and evaluation such as the logical framework and cost benefit analysis can be linked to environmental assessment, (chapter 2) 6. Many environmental guidelines are available, however these should not be used directly for project appraisal and evaluation but rather to assist in the preparation of project specific terms of reference. (2.6) The intensification of some farming systems damages the ecological processes on which they depend and hence reduces productivity. Other farming systems can be intensified without ecological damage. The challenge is to ensure that when farming is to be intensified it can be done without adverse ecological consequences. (3.1, 3.2) 8. Constraints on the adoption of sustainable farming systems include the perceptions, attitudes and knowledge of the society affected, economic limitations and problems of land tenure. (3.3) 9. Foreign aid donors can make a contribution towards establishing sustainable farming systems but past project designs have often not been well suited to conservation. (3.4) 10. Projects can be developed with conservation goals which will conserve the land, improve subsistence farming and assist with economic production. There are three stages in these projects: - Identify the causes of land degradation and the constraints to countering them. - Develop and demonstrate appropriate farming systems - Extension (3.5) 11. A project is likely to have a greater impact if it leads to the adoption of appropriate conservation techniques over a region than if it intensively improves a restricted project area. A project must therefore seek to develop techniques which will be adopted without subsidy. (3.4, 3.5) 12. The Australian projects in northern Thailand have successfully demonstrated farming systems which would reduce erosion but these have yet to be adopted on a significant scale by the population in the region. (4.2) 13. The NTT Livestock Development Project in Timor has not yet had sufficient time to demonstrate suitable farming systems but it is expected that such systems can be developed. (4.3) 14. In Sikka, Flores, Indonesia, the widespread planting of contour hedgerows of leucaena has brought substantial conservation benefits. The key factors in the adoption of this practice appear to have been that the technique was readily undertaken by fanners, it increases crop yields and that there was strong support from the local administration. (4.3) 15. It should be possible to introduce conservation farming systems to a region in a period of about ten years. If success is to be achieved it is essential that practices be capable of being adopted without subsidy, that the introduction get strong support from the local administration and that there be a vigorous extension campaign. 16. It is recommended that: - Australia should have an explicit policy on conservation and development assistance based on our commitment to the World Conservation Strategy. (5.l) - ADAB should have its focus of conservation within the appraisals and evaluations area.(5.2) ADAB should incorporate conservation considerations throughout the project cycle. (5.3) - The cost benefit guidelines provided by ADAB should be amended to include conservation considerations. (5.4) - ADAB should support and encourage conservation projects and should seek to develop projects which will have a conservation impact throughout the relevant region. (5.5) - ADAB should cooperate with other agencies in its activities on conservation and development. In particular we should play an active role in OECD activities relating to environment and development. (5.6)

Great States are always occupied the most part of international politics,even history. After the Second World War, number of Small States are growingup to the unprecedent high. The power of Small States acted more active and important in international political stages than ever, especially small nicke states. The author try to describe the Small States'position and foreign policy fromancient to present. Theory of Small States can be disscussed in many way : history fate, neutral, non-aligned, aligned, developed, developing, situational,weak, and behavioral in international systems or organizations. The author agree that Small States have more chances to or get strength if they can developtheir domestic affairs in right many and penetrate their foreign ability in pro-per time. 　　The author also appreciate mant Small States use their limited resources to promote their international position and develop states strength, which are niche states. Niche state is one of the features after the Second World War,design their special military,economics and diplomcy ability to participate world affairs and construct their own security and development. Many of small niche states connected well in foreign policy and aid which earned interantional reputation Foreign aid has been the part of foreign policy,not only for the diplomatic consideration but also domestic courses. 　　International opinion, especially from Third World States, consideded the small statesas donors are more generous and helpful than Great states. The author argued Small States and Great States have same foreign considerations that the givingforeign aid are according to satisfy their own interests. The author select eigh Small States to show how can these states use foreign aid to keep or promotetheir interests. They are Switzerland, Sweden, The Netherlands, Kuwait, Israel,Cuba former East Germany and South Korea. 　　In conclusion, the author suggested the government of the Republic of Chinathat they can do more things in foreign aid affairs in order to promote state'sinternational in depth (stuff tranning, organization strengthen, policy priority) and broad (military aid, consortium, humanism).

Billions of dollars in development aid are sent to developing countries every year. Weak institutions in recipient countries are the main impediments often discussed to prevent aid from reaching the intended targets. At the same time, they also hinder aid effectiveness in improving the lives of the people. This dissertation argues that the impact of aid on income distribution and human welfare in recipient countries differs by their institutional quality. Institutions encompass many different dimensions. This dissertation focuses on: corruption in government, quality of bureaucracy, and the rule of law. This study explores the impact in two essays. The first essay investigates the role of institutions in aid distribution. In particular, we examine the interplay between aid and institutions on income shares of different population groups (measured by income quintiles), and on the gap between the rich and the poor (measured by the Gini coefficient). The study uses Principal Component Analysis to construct an institutional index from the three components: corruption, bureaucratic quality, and the rule of law. Employing Two-Stage Least Squares (2SLS) methodology on a panel data of 85 countries from 1960 to 2004, this study finds that an increase in aid as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) decreases the income shares of the poor (quintile 1 and quintile 2), but increases that of the rich (quintile 5), thereby widening the gap between the rich and the poor (Gini coefficient). Contrary to our main hypothesis, though, recipient countries’ institutions do not play any role in aid distribution. Similarly, the second essay also focuses on the importance of recipient institutions, but it assesses aid effectiveness in improving human welfare. The study considers five human development indicators: the Human Development Index (HDI), the health index, the infant mortality rate, the education index, and the average years of schooling. The study empirically tests the hypothesis by utilizing the same methodology as in the first essay, but on a panel of 80 countries from 1980 to 2004. The findings suggest that human welfare in recipient countries improves as aid increases. The improvement appears to be driven more by the health than the education sector. Furthermore, aid is more effective in countries with poorer institutional quality, which is contrary to the hypothesis. However, the results are not consistent when taking into account government’s pro-poor public expenditure.

Malaria is a daunting epidemic killing millions of people annually and no region is harder hit than Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Each year there are more than 247 million malaria cases in SSA, resulting in more than 600,000 deaths. Despite a comprehensive understanding of the parasite and its transmission, worldwide eradication campaigns have failed to adequately control or eliminate the disease. This paper provides a meta-analysis of historical and current approaches to malaria eradication throughout SSA, highlighting past success and perceived failure to avoid repetitive progression down a path of narrowly focused eradication efforts. Through consideration of the economic costs associated with malaria, as well as a critique of current international elimination strategies, this analysis suggests sizeable and widespread returns to pursuing eradication measures. However, this paper finds that current methods are not sufficient to eradicate the malaria burden and multi-dimensional and all-encompassing approaches are essential to making malaria history.

This dissertation consists of three essays. The first essay exploits a rich Longitudinal Survey on Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) dataset to determine the attributes that affect the probability of the incidence of remittances for a subsample of South East and Southern Asian immigrants. A logit regression model is used to address key motivations of the probability to remit by immigrants who live in Canada, with a particular focus on the immigrants' labour force participation and employment, education, housing, and living conditions. Results suggest that demographic, economic, and social factors are important for individuals in making decisions about remitting. Two questions are answered in the second essay. First, is there any significant impact of foreign financial flows on economic growth? Second, are remittances and grants more effective than loans in promoting growth? To answer these questions, the Generalized Method of Movements (GMM) technique is employed for a panel of 46 developing countries from all regions of the world during 1979 to 2011. Results suggest that remittances are most effective for all regions in promoting economic growth. Results reveal that grant-aid is also significantly associated with economic growth, while the impact of concessional loans is found to be insignificant. The varied performance of different types of financial flows is perhaps due to the fact that the obligation to repay loans made them less lucrative an option for investment mobilization. The third essay addresses the research question: “Does the exchange rate appreciate in the face of a voluminous remittances inflow?” To answer this question, the essay devises a mean group (MG) and pooled mean group (PMG) technique to investigate the exchange rate and remittance relationship for six South and South East Asian countries (Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand). The essay reveals strong homogeneous currency appreciation that supports the ‘Dutch Disease’ theoretical framework. Remittances are also found to be significantly associated with the expansion of the non-tradable goods sector at the expense of the tradable goods sector (resource movement effect). The presence of ‘Dutch Disease’ calls for active policy intervention in the face of large increases in remittance receipts.