The work started when I first registered as a part time Postgraduate student at Warwick, after finishing my MSc degree in medical sociology at Bedford College, London University in October 1982. Some preliminary investment had been done and a few essays written while I was in Taiwan teaching in a medical school. But it was only after April 1985, when I secured a grant from the Chinese Central Government in Taiwan to come over to England again and switched to full time study that the real work could really start. Since then, many parts of the work have been changed, such as the target problems and the methodology to tackle them. The whole working process was dynamic. Ideas exchanged, floating to and fro between my supervisor, Professor Margaret Stacey and me over years to find out results, as well as problems and methods. Only the original purpose of the study (Chinese women) and the sample group (nurses) have remained the same and still fascinate me. The problems were focussed gradually. The process of emergence of the problems and the conceptual framework used in the study will be described in part 1: introduction. The methodology changed in response to the focusing of the problems. Both the original plan and the evolving current design will be presented in Part 2: the research process. The field work and data analysis will be also dealt with in the same part. Some further but small alterations away from the research pIan were made to adjust to the situation of the field work as it happened in practice. Part 3 will be the results of the historical and literature review. The literature review gave me a more clear and closer look at my sample against their background of Chinese women's life in the past (chapter 8) and at the present day in Taiwan (chapter 10). Also traditional Chinese women healers and carers and the modern nursing history (chapter 9) were brought to light to elucidate the problems in nursing today. Part 4 will be the emergent themes which were attained through analysis of the field work. From these themes, a general profile of the life of these women in our sample in present day Taiwan gradually emerged. In part 5 conclusions are drawn concerning 'the new patriarchy', in which our respondents' lives are formed, as always around their menfolk – father, husband and son - although with certain differences from the situation in the past.

This thesis studies the method of gender social stratification and its circumstance in contemporary urban China. Firstly, a ‘social class schema’ is created after comparing the occupational classification in class schemas of Erikson-Goldthorpe-Portocarero and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and taking into consideration of the Standard Occupational Classification system (2010). Later, each stratum is subdivided into three sectors to reflect the Chinese dualist system of state and market, and the divisions in the market. Based on this schema and the data sets from the Chinese Household Income Project, 2002 and 2007, the shares of each social stratum and the earnings distribution are discussed, especially gender comparisons and changes. Moreover, to further scrutinise the differences in the same social stratum and to observe the impact of the household on men and women, the principal component analysis is applied to create a direct and indirect ‘Social Class Index’ (SCI) for each observation. Both indices are comprehensive and combine many aspects of the social stratification. The indirect ‘SCI’ also reflects the impact of the household with a changed variable set. After inspecting the composition changes of the social groups constructed on direct and indirect ‘SCI,’ the adjusted social stratification of genders are illustrated.

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Over the past few decades the number of ʻolder mothersʼ – women who begin their families at age 35 or over, has markedly increased. Concerns about rising numbers of ʻolder mothersʼ have been expressed by health professionals, who have warned of the risks of infertility and health risks to mother and baby that increase with advancing maternal age. Informed by a social constructionist epistemology, a central aim of this thesis is to contribute to understandings of ʻolder motherhoodʼ, through the identification of the ʻdiscursive terrainʼ that constitutes its meaning. A second aim is to consider the implications such discursive meanings may have for women who are positioned as ʻolder mothersʼ. In order to address these aims, 26 newspaper articles about ʻolder motherhoodʼ, and 11 in-depth interviews carried out with ʻolder mothersʼ were analysed using a critical discursive psychological approach. It is considered that the media predominantly position ʻolder mothersʼ as ʻselfishʼ - as those who ʻchooseʼ to ʻdelayʼ motherhood and therefore position them as responsible for putting themselves and their babies ʻat riskʼ. The ʻolderʼ mothers in this study did not identify with this representation and often worked to resist it through challenging the notion that their timing of motherhood was a choice, negotiating their degree of personal ʻriskʼ, and constructing themselves as ʻgoodʼ mothers. Moreover, it is argued that far from a ʻselfish choiceʼ, older motherhood is shaped by societal definitions of the ʻrightʼ or ʻidealʼ situation in which to become a mother, in addition to current ideologies of ʻgoodʼ motherhood that effectively define when a woman is ʻreadyʼ for motherhood. Finally, some recommendations for health professionals are made with respect to appropriate handling of the communication of the risks associated with later motherhood.

Two thirds of the 4,000 women who are in prison in England and Wales are mothers of dependent children. Imprisonment can severely alter, disrupt or even terminate mothering. However, there is a relative absence of empirical research within this area. Therefore, we know little of the meaning of mothering and motherhood for women in prison. The main aim of this research was to explore the way in which women in prison make sense of motherhood and construct their mothering identity. To achieve this, the analytical framework of biographical disruption was adopted and adapted; replacing chronic illness as the critical event with imprisonment. The study was underpinned by a narrative methodology to focus upon the ways in which the narratives of mothers in prison are constructed/ reconstructed and presented. In depth narrative interviews were conducted with 16 women. The interviews lasted between forty five minutes and three hours. The interviews were recorded, transcribed and then analysed using the Listening Guide. On the basis of those interviews, three different narratives were constructed, the Wounded Mother, the Unbecoming Mother and the Suspended Mother. The findings of this research illustrate that the relationship between imprisonment and biographical disruption is multi-faceted. Mothering identities can be fundamentally threatened, yet can also be reinforced. This research has also highlighted that it is often the compounding impact of repeated disruptions, culminating in prison that represents the most profound disruption to the mothering identities of women in prison. The implications of the research for policy and practice are also considered.

This thesis is about family law under the Ben Ali dictatorship where the women's rights embodied in these laws constituted a cornerstone of the state's legitimacy. in 1956, Tunisia became the first Muslim country to reform Islamic family law radically, abolishing polygamy and granting women and men equal rights in divorce. Whether these laws have supported gender equality or not has been hotly contested. Based on fieldwork in a suburb of Greater Tunis and in a court (2007-2008) thesis provides an ethnographic account of the practice of marriage and divorce. From these dual perspectives it argues that ordinary ethics are an essential part of the law. The thesis begins by exploring the uncertainties that surround marriage in a lower-middle class neighbourhood. it then analyses some of the mechanisms through which the law is intimately intertwined with ordinary ethics, notably through an examination of the documentary practices of divorce files. This thesis argues that the connections between law and ethics generate radical uncertainties and anxieties. First, there is uncertainty as to whether a litigant can access justice in divorce. To access rights in divorce a litigant must strive to display highly gendered forms of ethical personhood. Rather than supporting gender equality the legal processes contribute to the homogenization of moral values at a national level as particular gender roles are debated and reinforced vial legal practice. Second, there is uncertainty as to the state's moral legitimacy as it is exposed to the moral scrutiny of its citizens through the operation of the law. The thesis argues that the politically charged setting of the court is the scene for a kind of extraordinary ethics, as divorce cases are a site where the morality of marriage and the morality of the state are simultaneously at stake.

Sri Lanka gained prominence in international policy circles as an apparent 'success story' first as a model colony in early 1950s and later as a development model for South Asia by 1970s. In naming Sri Lankan 'success story' experts pointed to the decreasing population growth rate and decreasing mortality. Renowned demographers attributed this to the improvements in the field of social indicators such as high literacy rates, increased life expectancy and rise in female age at marriage. In this 'success story' women's health serves as a linchpin to the attainment of national progress. But a focus on women's health – as statistics and indicators – has also served to silence questions about Sri Lankan women's broader experiences of their disaggregated health. In particular, while Sri Lankan 'women's health' served the Sri Lankan state's 'success story' well, what is less clear is how women's individual bodies have fared within subsequent tellings of its other twentieth century Sri Lankan stories of late colonial, national, developmental, neoliberal and militarised phases. My thesis examines this question through a critical examination of women's health history of this island nation. I trace its history from initial birth control, family planning (1953) to development population control to militarisation, financialisation of women's bodies and ends with a critical examination of recent policies that claim to emancipate women's health 'beyond' a myopic focus on their role as reproducer. Although women's health was vigilantly 'controlled' and 'planned' for the state building project and women's bodies were framed around the notion of social reproduction for the nation building project of post independent Sri Lanka, women were neither subjects nor objects of these two projects. Women's reproductive bodies were, rather, the ground for a complex and competing set of struggles on population, family planning, development, modernisation and ethno nationalism of post independent Sri Lanka. Further women's health/women's bodies analysis helps to elucidate the manner in which we can track the operation of power that serves to silence women's own corporeal subjectivity and to delimit the realms in which she can exercise her own agency.

In the 1994 Rwanda genocide, an estimated 800,000 people were brutally murdered in just thirteen weeks. This violence affected all Rwandans, but women experienced the genocide in very specific ways. They were frequently raped, tortured and physically mutilated. Yet, because of their sexual value, the number of women who survived the genocide far outweighed the number of men, leaving them largely responsible for rebuilding Rwandan society. While it may seem abhorrent to suggest that anything good could result from such tragedy, evidence from the women’s testimonies analysed for this research project suggests that this is a reality. Traditionally, the study of psychological trauma has been pervaded by an illness ideology with an emphasis on its pathological consequences. Throughout history and across cultures, however, the notion of positive changes resulting from human suffering has been recognised in literature and philosophy. Positive change following trauma, or posttraumatic growth, refers to the tendency of some individuals to establish new psychological constructs and build a new way of life that is experienced as superior to their previous one in important ways. Little research has been carried out on the concept of posttraumatic growth in other cultures and, to date, no research into posttraumatic growth has been carried out in Rwanda. However, empirical research in other contexts suggests that efforts to harness and promote posttraumatic growth may not only enhance health and well-being but also reduce future need for formal mental health services. Through a discursive analysis of Rwandan women survivors’ testimonies, this thesis reveals that, although there are countless tales of horror, pain and loss, there are also many stories about strength, recovery and growth. The thesis examines the impact of external factors, such as victimisation, stigmatisation and gender, which appear to encourage personal strength among these women, but have also gravely damaged their interpersonal relationships. It also examines the impact of the genocide on religious beliefs and demonstrates that individual interpretations of trauma within a religious framework can provide existential reassurance. However, because of Rwanda’s history of theocratic leadership, religious interpretations can also give spiritual credibility to ideologies which have a negative impact on group identity. The final part of the thesis examines processes of growth at the collective level, exploring the impact of the genocide on these women’s group identities both as survivors in Rwandan society and as Rwandans in an international society. It suggests that for growth to take place at the collective level, survivors require access to a platform from which they can develop counter ideologies and pursue their collective needs for agency on the one hand, and communion on the other. Drawing on the findings of this research, the concluding chapter offers culturally-informed advice to trauma practitioners, policy makers and non-governmental organisations as to how posttraumatic growth might be facilitated in the socio-political climate of Rwanda.

There is an idea, currently fashionable amongst historians, that all history is really 'about' the present 1. This thesis does nothing to undermine this idea. Although most obviously concerned with ideas about the family in the twenty five or so years after 1945, it is also very much concerned with our own contemporary debates about the family. Indeed, it is conceived as a means of making an intervention into those debates. The thesis seeks to explore the complexity of debate, policy, representation and memories of the family in the postwar period. To do this, research is organised around three distinct strands: Consideration of official discourse and public policy (at both a national and local level); analysis of representations of family in popular culture, particularly in British film/ and consideration of remembered experience as evidenced in oral sources. Where appropriate, the London Borough of Greenwich has been used as a local example which acts as a reference point for discussion of national concerns. The research comprises work on new oral sources and on local authority and voluntary agency papers which have not previously been the subject of published work. It also involves new ways of thinking about some well research material in official publications and film. The thesis also engages with questions of method and theory associated with studying the history of ideas. It is particularly concerned with affirming the importance of studies of popular, non-literary culture and oral histories in understanding the past.

The aim of the study is to explore the hypothesis that children, between the ages of seven and eleven, not only have concepts of politics, but that these develop, following a basic Piagetian model, through consecutive, cumulative stages. Investigation of this idea is carried out by examining childrens’ responses, both verbal and written, to particular questions, and subsequently relating these responses to a body of theory, which draws together some important contributions to present knowledge of childrens’ cognitive and social development. This provides both a point of reference and a disciplined structure for examining the significance of the collected data, as it enables an analytic approach to be made to studying the ways in which children perceive and enact political ideas, and gradually acquire the ability to use political concepts. The first section of the study is concerned with establishing this theoretical basis. The second part of the study presents approximately eight hundred childrens’ responses to questions which were intended to elicit their perceptions of the content of political activity, concepts of the processes and roles of government and attitudes to authority, freedom and the rule of law. These are accompanied by commentary, and followed by further discussion in terms of the nature of the development observed at different stages, and what appear to be the formative influences upon it. These include the influence of social class on political understanding, and raise questions concerning the role of the family group's language in political concept-formation, the political function of early schooling, sex-linked differences in political understanding and the influence of television on that understanding. The study has therefore both a practical and theoretical content. It is a study of children in action cognitively, and of the structures and directions of their developing thought on politics, from its earliest identifiable appearance, in ways which have not emerged, or been taken into account, in existing literature.