Submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of Master of Science in Development Planning in the Department of Town and Regional Planning in the Faculty of Architecture at the University of Witwatersrand. Johannesburg, October 1991. / Co-operative development had been reestablished in newly independent African countries in Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The failure of many co-operatives especially the production co-operatives, has resulted in a decreasing interest. The less spectacular forms like rural service co-operatives or credit and savings co-operatives did not attract the same research initiatives and interests as producer co-operatives despite the fact that rural service co-operatives have played a considerable economic, social and political role in many African countries (Hedlund, 1988). Rural service co-operatives in South Africa have been initiated by the farmers and/or government. All too often they ended up, both cases alike, being run by the government. Direct state control is unlikey to facilitate a creative environment in the local community or in a local community institution. / AC2017

Bibliography: p. 119-126. Discusses factors which affect the increase of small holdings output in and effort to increase the farmers income.

This study employed qualitative research methods to explore the motivations, perceptions, and regional contextual factors that influence the management decisions of small-scale farmers in East Central Indiana (ECI). In-depth, semi-structured interviews with 15 key informants and 29 farmers were recorded, transcribed, and coded using content analysis to understand the factors most relevant to small-scale farming in the region. Several important themes and subthemes arose in the data related to farming motivations, barriers to farm sustainability, and farmer learning and education. The results of this study complement the findings of previous work that describe the complex framework farmers navigate when making decisions on the farm. Still, this study identifies subtle regional factors (i.e., market conditions, farming culture, local economy)that significantly impact farmers’ decisions, and emphasizes the importance of local context in crafting agricultural policies and outreach efforts. Implications and recommendations for East Central Indiana are discussed. / Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management

Thesis (Ph.D.). / Written for the Dept. of Anthropology. Title from title page of PDF (viewed 2007/08/30). Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / On title page: Master of Philosophy (Information and Knowledge Management). Bibliography. Also available via the Internet.

In Lesotho, agriculture is the dominant activity and involves crop and livestock production, range management and forestry activities. The current climatic variability in the country has caused decline in food production as result of increased dry spells, frequency of droughts and erratic rainfall. These climatic events are expected to have a significant impact on the livelihoods of the smallholder farmers. In combatting the harmful effects of climate change, smallholder farmers in Lesotho have employed various adaptation strategies based on their local knowledge and limited means. While these strategies may not be optimal they obviously constitute the basis for potentially effective improved technologies which can be developed and communicated through an efficient extension system, hence the need to precisely identify them and understand the factors that affect their choice. The main objective of this study was therefore, to identify the adaptation strategies and investigate the factors influencing smallholder farmers’ choice of those adaptation strategies. The study made use of multi-stage stratified sampling technique to select 160 respondents across four agro-ecological zones (lowlands, highlands, foothills and Senqu River Valley) in Leribe and Mohales’Hoek districts of Lesotho. Primary data for the study were collected using semi - structured questionnaire assisted with interview schedules administered on the respondents. Data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics and the multinomial logistics regression model. The results show that there are more males than females, majority of the respondents’ attained primary education, and older people dominate the smallholder farming system. The adaptation strategies used in MNL model were soil and water management, crop management and livestock management. The results further revealed that soil and water management strategies were the most adopted climate change strategies amongst smallholder farmers. It is understood that marital status, age and gender, income, land tenure, crop grown, extension services, and agro-ecological zones are the determinant factors influencing the choice of the adaptation strategies. This study concludes by recommending that smallholder farmers should be sensitised about climate change and both government and non-government organisations working on climate change related issues should direct their attention to rural communities to ensure effective response to climate change.

Agricultural development is back on the development agenda. Even though the smallholder farmers are in the majority and at the forefront in terms of food production and agriculture being the backbone of the economy of Zimbabwe, there is no clearly defined policy on smallholder agriculture in Zimbabwe. The food insecurity has remained a continuous challenge for the rural poor in Zimbabwe. This study investigated the contribution of smallholder agriculture to food security with particular reference to the Masvingo province. The study employed qualitative method of research entailing extensive review of literature as a method of data collection. The study utilized the modernisation theory and sustainable livelihoods framework to illustrate smallholder agriculture and food security nexus. The study revealed that smallholder agriculture is the best option for addressing food security since agriculture is considered the main livelihood strategy for small scale farmers in Zimbabwe. There is general scholarly consensus that the main cause of food insecurity in Zimbabwe is a decrease in smallholder agriculture productivity. The study revealed that poor infrastructure , limited access to credit, limited access to inputs, poor investment in human development, limited access to markets and harsh climatic conditions weaken the capacity of small scale farmers to improve food security. Key recommendations are that supportive institutions need to be put in place to strengthen the smallholder farmer’s capacity to improve food security in Zimbabwe.

Poverty and food insecurity are common problems among low-income households in developing countries. Innovative interventions in the agricultural sector are regarded as effective in poverty alleviation and therefore food insecurity. Food insecurity is defined by London and Anupindi (2012) as a lack of access to adequate, safe and nutritious food and is closely associated with poverty. It can ultimately be addressed as part of a broader strategy to alleviate poverty, which would include enterprise-led initiatives, inclusive approaches and value chain adjustments. London and Anuipindi (2012) argued that a study hoping to demonstrate the relevance and reliability of understanding the base of pyramid (BoP) as a catalyst to interdependence–based collaboration, would address the level of agribusiness isolation and individualism, to reap the benefits of shared advantage, followed by addressing the interconnected issues of poverty and food insecurity. This study proposes that small scale farmers can benefit from interdependence-based collaborations (IBC) of key role players from the state, private sector and civil society. Consequently, this is a qualitative exploratory study, aiming to seek new insights into the application of inclusive models based on the IBC within the small farm holding, the private sector, civil society and government, and thus their impact on the capacitation of the small-scale farmer and alleviation of poverty. / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / ccgibs2014 / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / MBA / Unrestricted

Small scale farmers represent 80% of all farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and contribute up to 90% of agriculture production. Small scale farming is not without its problems and sub-Saharan Africa has one of the lowest agriculture productivities in the world - this despite ample land and water availability. These problems include inter alia, the fundamental lack of economies of scale and access to market, high transaction costs, and limited access to finance. This is in a global environment, where contract farming is becoming very dominant in agriculture: In 2010, 41% of the North American agriculture output was sold on contract, compared to 11% in the ‘60’s. The research objective was to evaluate contract farming as a vertical integration mechanism for small scale farmers to take advantage of this growing long term trend. To this end, a hypothesis was proposed that contract farming is a practical model that increases farm income for the small scale farmer. In support of this hypothesis, five propositions were tested, viz: does contract farming provide market linkage, reduce transaction costs, increase rural development, raise production output, and can it be applied across different crops. The research followed a deductive approach and a qualitative data collection method. The propositions were tested using empirical evidence obtained from semi-structured interviews with companies involved in contract farming. The hypothesis was confirmed by the evidence presented. The individual propositions: market linkage, transaction costs, rural development and different crops were all supported. However the evidence presented that contract farming raises output was inconclusive. These findings are however, subject to solving a number of issues - such as land transfer, mitigating the effect of low economies of scale, controlling side selling, and having a dispensation that increases profits over the long term. Further to the findings, a model framework is proposed to structure a contract farming system. With 60% of the sub-Saharan population involved in agriculture, the ability to increase farm side income presents an enormous opportunity to contribute to rural economic prosperity. This is not only for the benefit of farmer, but also for his community, via the multiplier effect. / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / ccgibs2014 / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / MBA / Unrestricted

Overpopulation and over-exploitation of resources continues to strain the process of development for many countries in the tropics. In Latin America deforestation and the subsequent marginalization of these lands has put pressure on the agricultural research community to develop appropriate land-use systems for these areas. Agroforestry is one class of such systems that are presently receiving much attention. The tropical mixed garden, in particular, is one such system that has attracted attention from researchers in various countries. The present study has focused upon the traditional mixed garden system, as found in Costa Rica, with the objective of determining its potential for increased contribution to small farming systems. Development of the data base for this assessment included a survey of 225 farms distributed throughout Costa Rica, year-long case studies of six farms, divided between two contrasting ecological zones, and a simple simulation model of a mixed garden agroforestry system. The mixed garden is clearly an important component of small farming systems in Costa Rica. Though half of the gardens studied were only between 0.01 to 0.20 hectares in size, half were greater, and a few encompassed a hectare or more of land. As a percent of total farm size, mixed gardens were most important in the Tropical Dry Forest and Tropical Moist Forest life zones. Mixed gardens are more common in economically depressed areas and less so in areas where farmers are well off. The ranking of various factors representing ecological complexity of mixed gardens is what one would expect if difference in garden complexity were determined solely by between-zone differences in the environment, thus supporting hypothesis 1. On the other hand, multivariate analysis of species presence/absence data for mixed gardens suggest that the hypothesis (Hypothesis 2) that Holdridge's system of ecological classification is an adequate means of stratifying the variation in species composition in mixed gardens is false. The findings also support the hypothesis (Hypothesis 3) that the mixed garden has a higher energy benefit-cost ratio than commercial cropping systems. The commercial cropping systems on the farms studied consumed between 9 to 10,000 times the amount of cultural energy as did the mixed gardens. Mixed gardens on small farms have the potential to contribute much more to the cash economy of the farm household than they generally do at present. The observations reported here concerning labour patterns and management practices, together with the economic analysis, support the hypothesis (Hypothesis 4) that the output of the mixed garden can be improved. The economic and labour use analysis presented here also supports the hypothesis (Hypothesis 5) that "the mixed garden exists as a supplementary enterprise whose primary function is to absorb excess farm labour." With due regard for the limitations of a simulation of the type used in this thesis, I find support for the contention that the traditional mixed garden in Costa Rica can be developed into an ecologically conservative yet commercially viable cropping system. In particular, the incorporation of high-value timber species shows the potential to significantly improve the long-term economy of the farm. Integrating animal production, as Wagner (1957) had advocated earlier, also can enhance garden productivity. / Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies / Graduate