Chrysippus faces two different objections as to whether Fate can acommodate praise, blame, honor or punishment: one, to the effect that if everything takes place by Fate, then praise and blame do not make a difference in the course of events, and therefore cannot effectively exhort one to virtue or dissuade one from vice; the other, to the effect that if everything takes place by Fate, then one is not the ultimate origin of one\'s actions, and therefore praise, blame, honor, or punishment for one\'s actions are not deserved. The first (preseved in Diogenianus\' testimony apud Eusebius\' Praeparatio Evangelica VI 8) is distinct from the Idle Argument in Origen (Contra Celsum II 20) and Cicero (De Fato 28-30) in that it pertains to the issue of moral responsibility, and derives instead from the digression in Book XXV of Epicurus\' treatise On Nature. The second (preserved in Cicero\'s De Fato 39-45 and Gellius\' Noctes Atticae VII 2) is not related to the issue of alternate possibilities, which belongs rather in a later appraisal of the original discussion, with which it is conflated in Cicero\'s testimony. Chrysippus\' reply to the latter, in that it is capable of establishing, beyond mere absence from external compulsion, that the perfect causes of our impulses are our assents and that our assents do not take place all by themselves, is capable of meeting conditions for desert of praise, blame, honor, or punishment qua therapeutic devices aimed at extirpating our passions, which is the sole notion of praise, blame, honor or punishment to have a claim on desert in the extant fragments of Chrysippus. / Crisipo responde a duas objeções sobre se o Destino pode acomodar louvores, reprimendas, honras ou punições: de acordo com a primeira, se tudo ocorre por Destino, louvores e reprimendas não fazem diferença no curso dos eventos e, por conseguinte, não podem exortar à virtude ou dissuadir do vício de modo efetivo; de acordo com a segunda, se tudo ocorre por Destino, ninguém é a origem última de suas ações e, por conseguinte, louvores, reprimendas, honras ou punições por suas ações não são merecidas. A primeira (preservada no testemunho de Diogeniano apud Eusébio, Praeparatio Evangelica VI 8) é distinta do Argumento Preguiçoso em Cícero (De Fato 28-30) e Orígenes (Contra Celsum II 20) por ser atinente à responsabilidade moral, e deriva da digressão no livro XXV do tratado de Epicuro Sobre a natureza. A segunda (preservada em Cicero, De Fato 39-45 e Gélio, Noctes Atticae VII 2) não tem relação com a questão das possibilidades alternativas, a qual pertence a uma apreciação posterior da discussão original com a qual vem mesclada no testemunho de Cícero. A resposta de Crisipo à segunda objeção, na medida em que é capaz de estabelecer, para além da mera ausência de força exterior, que as causas perfeitas de nossos impulsos são os nossos assentimentos e que os nossos assentimentos não ocorrem a despeito de nós, é capaz de cumprir os requisitos para o merecimento de louvores, reprimendas, honras ou punições enquanto instrumentos terapêuticos que visam à cura de nossas paixões, a qual é a única noção de louvores, reprimendas, honras ou punições que pode aspirar a merecimento nos fragmentos supérstites de Crisipo.

Este trabalho investiga o significado do termo tu/xh em Eurípides, sobretudo na tragédia Hipólito. \"Acaso\", \"sorte\", \"fortuna\", traduções usuais para tu/xh, sugerem o significado de \"acontecimento fortuito\". Se assim fosse, de que modo esse \"acaso\" coexistiria na Tragédia com a noção, tão própria ao mundo grego, de \"destino\" (moi=ra, a)na/gkh, dai/mwn)? Na verdade, a análise das ocorrências em Eurípides demonstrou que a tu/xh não é mero \"acaso\". Ao contrário, costuma ter origem divina e ser instrumento da moi=ra. A tu/xh é o destino no momento em que se precipita em acontecimento. A instabilidade da \"sorte\" é categórica na vida e reiterada na Tragédia. Não é possível considerar feliz alguém que esteja vivo, pois a vida é apenas incerteza: rapidamente se pode inverter uma situação favorável. Os reveses da \"sorte\" atingem, em particular, aqueles que, seguros de si, se vangloriam do que são e da condição que possuem. Pertinente é o aforismo de Heráclito (frag. 119.1-120.1): hÅqoj a)nqrw¯pwi daimwn, \"o caráter do homem é seu destino\" ou \"o destino do homem é seu caráter\". Há relação causal entre o caráter de um personagem trágico e aquilo que lhe sobrevém. Tal caráter é investigado através dos termos psíquicos que utiliza Eurípides para seus protagonistas (frh/n e cognatos, kardi/a, yuxh/, qumo/j, etc.). / This work investigates the meaning of the word tu/xh in Euripedes and mainly in the Hyppolytus tragedy. \"Chance\", \"luck\" and \"fortune\" suggest the meaning of \"fortuitous event\" therefore they are usual translations for tu/xh. If it was like this, on which way would this \"chance\" coexist in the Tragedy with the notion of \"fate\" (moi=ra, a)na/gkh, dai/mwn) that is so peculiar to the Greek world? Indeed, the analysis of the occurrences in Euripedes has demonstrated that tu/xh is not merely \"chance\". On the contrary, it is accustomed to have a divine origin and to be the instrument of moi=ra. Tu/xh is fate in the moment that it turns into happening. \"Luck\" instability is categorical in life and reiterated in the Tragedy. It is not possible to consider someone that is alive happy, because life is just uncertainness: a favorable situation may be reversed rapidly. Reverses of \"luck\" affect specifically those that are self-confident and pride of themselves due to what they are and the conditions they have. Heraclitus\' aphorism is pertinent (frag. 119.1-120.1): hÅqoj a)nqrw¯pwi daimwn, \"a man\'s character is his fate\" or \"a man\'s fate is his character\". There is a relation of cause between the character of a tragic personage and what befalls him. Such character is investigated through psychic terms that Euripides uses for his protagonists (frh/n and cognates, kardi/a, yuxh/, qumo/j etc.).

Each and every one of us is exposed to chemicals on a daily basis and contributes to the global issue of chemical pollution. Humankind has become heavily dependent on the use of man-made chemicals in order to sustain the increased quality of life that is generally seen globally. There is however a price to pay in that we generally live in a world that is polluted by anthropogenic chemicals. From the water we drink to the food we eat there will be some trace of chemical residues; you just need to look closely enough and/or know what you’re looking for. With many hundreds of thousands of man-made chemicals approved within Europe for use in various ways, it is no surprise that we come into daily contact with them. What is also important to understand is that the presence of a man-made chemical is not enough to establish whether it poses a risk to environmental or human health; it needs to be present in sufficient amounts to elicit an effect. Over the past 20 years the focus of my research been on understanding which chemicals we should be concerned with, which pose the greatest risk and why do they pose such a risk. This work is of major societal and scientific significance as it protects the world we live in whilst teaching us about the better regulation of the chemicals we have become so dependent. To understand the nature of my research it is important to understand that prior to the mid-nineteen nineties hazardous organic chemicals were typically restricted to lists comprising of a number of banned (and typically chlorinated) pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans and the antifouling biocide tributyltin (TBT). One of the major enigmas that faced environmental scientists at the time was that even though it was possible to quantify and monitor the presence of the above hazardous substances in the environment, they often didn´t explain the environmental quality measured though biological effects on organisms. Chemicals are globally regulated on an individual substance level and subsequently within the context of influencing these regulations, for the improved protection of environmental and human health, it is therefore essential to know which chemical contaminants are actually causing biological effects. It is also necessary to know the levels at which any organism will be exposed and what the consequences of these levels. My research subsequently became focused on two separate approaches; identifying which substances actually cause the biological effects unexplained by hazardous substances and evaluating the occurrence, environmental fate and ecotoxicity of those chemicals not routinely monitored or present on priority lists of hazardous substances; a group of chemical contaminants later termed contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). An effect-directed non-target approach A targeted approach to environmental analysis infers that we know exactly what we should be looking for. Whilst this is a suitable approach for chemicals that we suspect may be of concern, it does not help us understand which other contaminants may be present in the environment and potentially causing harm. When embryos of oysters exposed to estuarine surface waters developed deformities and this could not be attributable to the levels of priority hazardous substances a bioassay-directed non-target approach to environmental analysis was developed to identify chlorinated and alkylphenols as responsible [5, 6]. This approach has subsequently evolved into the approach termed effect-directed analysis (EDA) and is widely used globally for the identification of CECs. My own research has successfully applied the approach to identify for the first time a number of important environmental contaminants; steroidal androgens [10, 13, 14] as environmental contaminants, the phthalate ester bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate [10], cinnarizine, cholesta-4,6.dien-3-one [19], C1-C5 and C9 alkylphenols [21], petrogenic naphthenic acids [57] as environmental estrogen receptor agonists, C1-C5 and C9 alkylphenols [21], PAHs and petrogenic naphthenic acids [57] as androgen receptor antagonists and unresolved polar aromatic compounds as important environmental genotoxins [15]. Another focus of my effects-directed research has been identifying environmental contaminants that exert the same effects as dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in that they are aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonists. Dioxin-like chemicals are ubiquitous in the environment and in addition to those that are routinely monitored there are a large number of other compounds that exert dioxin-like effects [26, 28, 32, 33, 37, 52, 64, 82, 93, 98, 99]. Better understanding of AhR agonists will in the long run help protect the environment and humans from a particularly hazardous group of chemicals. A targeted approach The early- to mid-nineteen nineties saw the widespread introduction of liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to the environmental analytical toolbox. Robust instruments typically using electrospray and atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation were well suited to the analysis of the more polar CECs, such as alternative antifouling biocides to TBT, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, veterinary medicines, illicit drugs and rodenticides. Robust analytical methodology is key to my research [2, 4, 18, 31, 34, 35, 42, 49, 66, 69, 72, 73, 86, 94, 102] as it allows the better understanding of how contaminants behave and interact with the environment. Development of robust, specific and sensitive methods for the analysis of alternative antifouling biocides [2, 4] allowed for the first time an evaluation of their life-cycle from release at the paint surface, and the factors that influence this [3], their occurrence in the environment [7, 8, 12, 29], fate and behaviour [12, 16] and subsequent effects [36, 41]. Assessment of the environmental risks based upon these data showed that both Irgarol 1051 and diuron were a threat to freshwater and marine algae. The significance of this research is that it subsequently led to restrictions being placed on the use of Irgarol 1051 and diuron in antifouling products in a number of European countries [58] and an awareness of the hazards associated with the deliberate release of biocidal products into the environment [86]. Observations of human pharmaceutical residues in the chromatograms of wastewater effluent samples being analysed by EDA and reports of their occurrence in German wastewaters motivated the development of LC- tandem MS methods for the quantification of pharmaceutical residues in waste- and surface waters [18]. Pharmaceuticals, we showed, occur in treated wastewater effluents and marine and freshwater recipients [24, 25, 30, 42, 43, 51, 66] and that, to no great surprise, the per capita pharmaceutical loads from hospitals were greater than the general population [43, 51]. Other highlights include understanding the processes that occur within sewer systems and what influences pharmaceutical occurrence in the final treated effluent [59, 60, 81, 85, 105], all of which allow for a better assessment of the overall risk posed to the environment. Even though several hundred papers have been published on pharmaceuticals in the environment since my early work, this has almost exclusively been focused on the parent pharmaceutical ingredient in aqueous matrices from developed counties. To remedy this shortfall more recent work has focused on quantifying the proportion of pharmaceutical metabolites released as compared to the parent [66], pharmaceutical occurrence in sludges and sediments [69], as well as evaluating occurrence in less studied water cycles [101].

Dans cette thèse, on s'efforce de montrer que le destin - au sens d'un avenir annoncé ou d'une vie qui s'achève - constitue, dans les 32 épopées antiques grecques et latines étudiées (ou dans les épyllions), une figure littéraire plutôt qu'historique, philosophique ou religieuse. D'un point de vue chronologique, nous ne notons ni une modification de la nature ni un affaiblissement significatifs de l'importance du destin, entre les épopées archaïques et celles de l'Antiquité tardive. Sur le plan philosophique, la conception stoïcienne du destin n'affecte fortement que deux épopées, l'une, grecque et l'autre, latine. Pour ce qui concerne la mythologie religieuse, Jupiter et les Parques n'ont pas, dans la détermination du destin, un rôle bien différent de celui joué par Zeus et par les Moires. En revanche, le destin est une figure littéraire. Sur le plan linguistique, les deux couples majeurs, μοῖρα - κήρ (moïra - kèr) et fatum - fortuna, ne sont pas assimilables. Et le destin joue un rôle littéraire primordial. D'abord, une suppression simulée du destin appauvrit la personnalité des héros ; elle détériore la structure de la plupart des épopées ; elle peut même détruire leur objet. Ensuite le destin exerce trois fonctions littéraires : il favorise la clarté du récit, il préserve ou il accroît son intérêt, il exerce un effet d'amplification. / Based on the study of 32 Greek and Latin ancient epics (or epyllions), we intend to prove in this work that fate - with the meaning of predicted future or finished life - constitutes a literary figure rather than an historical, philosophical or religious figure. From a chronological point of view, fate neither alters its nature nor loosens power in the Antiquity, from the first till the late epics. Philosophically, fate's stoic conception has important consequences for only two epics, one Greek, the other Latin. Finally, regarding religious mythology, Jupiter and the Parcae have a role in the determination of fate approximately similar to the one of Zeus and the Moirai. Meanwhile, fate is a literary figure. In the linguistic field of fate, the two main pairs, μοῖρα - κήρ (moïra - kèr) and fatum - fortuna, have very different features. And fate has an essential literary function. First, a simulated suppression of fate impoverishes heroes' personality ; it damages most epics structure ; it sometimes destroys their subject. Then, fate has three literary functions : it promotes story's clarity, it preserves or improves its interest and allows to magnify the story.

An awareness of mercury (Hg) contamination in various aquatic environments around the world has increased over the past decade, mostly due to its ability to concentrate in the biota. Because the presence and distribution of Hg in aquatic systems depend on many factors (e.g., pe, pH, salinity, temperature, organic and inorganic ligands, sorbents, etc.), it is crucial to understand its fate and transport in the presence of complexing constituents and natural sorbents, under those different factors. An improved understanding of the subject will support the selection of monitoring, remediation, and restoration technologies. The coupling of equilibrium chemical reactions with transport processes in the model PHREEQC offers an advantage in simulating and predicting the fate and transport of aqueous chemical species of interest. Thus, a great variety of reactive transport problems could be addressed in aquatic systems with boundary conditions of specific interest. Nevertheless, PHREEQC lacks a comprehensive thermodynamic database for Hg. Therefore, in order to use PHREEQC to address the fate and transport of Hg in aquatic environments, it is necessary to expand its thermodynamic database, confirm it and then evaluate it in applications where potential exists for its calibration and continued validation. The objectives of this study were twofold: 1) to develop, expand, and confirm the Hg database of the hydrogeochemical PHREEQC to enhance its capability to simulate the fate of Hg species in the presence of complexing constituents and natural sorbents under different conditions of pH, redox, salinity and temperature; and 2) to apply and evaluate the new database in flow and transport scenarios, at two field test beds: Oak Ridge Reservation, Oak Ridge, TN and Everglades National Park, FL, where Hg is present and is of much concern. Overall, this research enhanced the capability of the PHREEQC model to simulate the coupling of the Hg reactions in transport conditions. It also demonstrated its usefulness when applied to field situations.

Contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) are an unregulated suite of constituents frequently detected in environmental waters, which possess the potential to cause a host of reproductive and developmental problems in humans and wildlife. Degradation pathways of several CECs are well-characterized in idealized laboratory settings, but CEC fate and transport in complex field settings is poorly understood. In the present study I use a multi-tracer solute injection to study and quantify physical transport and photodegradation in a wastewater effluent-impacted stream in Ankeny, Iowa. Conservative tracers are used to quantify physical transport processes in the stream. Use of reactive fluorescent tracers allows for isolation of the relative contribution of photodegradation within the system. Field data were used to calibrate a one-dimensional transport model, and forward modeling was then used to predict the transport of sulfamethoxazole, an antibiotic in the effluent which is susceptible to photolysis. Results show that accurate predictions of reactive CECs at the scale of stream reaches can be made using the fate and transport model based on field tracer studies. Results of this study demonstrate a framework that can be used to couple field tracer and laboratory CEC studies to accurately predict the transport and fate of CECs in streams.

The propensity of Salmonella to persist in water environments under unfavourable conditions is of concern as these water environments serve as contamination reservoirs. The role of contaminated water in the transmission of Salmonella in developing countries is largely unknown. The fate and persistence of non-typhoidal Salmonella in water environments and the specific influence of the indigenous microbiota on the survival and growth of Salmonella is poorly understood. A tagged Salmonella strain distinguishable in vivo from a mixed bacterial community would greatly facilitate the study of Salmonella in water environments. The clinically relevant S. enterica subsp. enterica ser. Typhimurium isolate was chromosomally tagged using the pUT mini–Tn5 Km transposon with the green fluorescent protein gene gfpmut3b*. Southern Blot hybridisation confirmed that the gfp gene had integrated into the chromosome. The gfp gene was stably maintained and the gfp-labelled recombinants were not growth rate impaired under low nutrient conditions. No significant changes were observed between the wild-type and the tagged strain. The survival fitness studies indicated the incorporation of the gfp gene did not have any noted detrimental effects on the survival and behaviour of the tagged strains. These tagged strains could therefore be used to study the fate and survival of Salmonella in biofilms of drinking water distribution systems. Genetic tagging of the target organism with the gfp gene, encoding the green fluorescent protein, allows in situ detection of undisturbed cells and is ideally suited for monitoring Salmonella as a monospecies or in a complex mixed community. The fate and persistence of non-typhoidal Salmonella in drinking water biofilms was investigated. The ability of Salmonella to form biofilms independently and the fate and persistence of Salmonella in an aquatic biofilm was examined. </p.> In monoculture S. Typhimurium formed loosely structured biofilms. Salmonella colonized established multi-species drinking water biofilms within 24 hours, growing to form micro-colonies within the biofilm. S. Typhimurium was also released at high levels from the drinking water-associated biofilm into the flow, and was seen to re-colonize elsewhere. Results showed that Salmonella can enter into, survive and grow within, and be released from a drinking water biofilm. Once Salmonella has entered into a distribution system, it will be able to colonize an existing biofilm, grow in it and be released into the flow for re-colonization elsewhere, and possible subsequent infection of consumers. / Dissertation (MSc (Microbiology ))--University of Pretoria, 2005. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted

Development and the associated cellular differentiation are some of the most fundamental processes in biology. Since the early conception of the Waddington landscape, with cells portrayed as rolling down a landscape, understanding these processes has been at the forefront of biology. Progress in tissue regeneration, organoid culture, and cellular reprogramming relies on our ability to unfold cellular decision making and its dynamics. In this thesis, we ask to what extent development follows such landscape. Secondly, we address whether cellular branching points are discrete events. Given the recent surge in single-cell genomics data, we can now address these fundamental questions. To this end, we analyzed two large-scale single-cell RNAseq time course datasets from vertebrate embryogenesis in zebrafish. From the Waddington analogy, we expect the cell-to-cell correlation to increase across development as cells specialize. Our analysis does not show a linear trend, but rather, that cell-to-cell variability is lowest during gastrulation. Interestingly, the two different datasets from two different laboratories display a qualitatively similar trend, providing internal consistency of our analysis. To uncover the branchpoint dynamics, we extended our analysis to include computations of gene-to-gene correlations. It has been shown, using PCR data, that the transition index, the ratio between cell-to-cell and gene-to-gene correlations, displays a peak during such branchpoints, suggesting discrete transitions. To this end, we tracked individual developmental trajectories, and characterized both correlations, enabling computation of the transition index. However, the cell-to-cell correlation and gene-to-gene correlation did not follow a generic inverse relationship, as previously suggested. No unique signal corresponding to the branchpoints could, thus, be detected. Therefore, our analysis does not support the view that branchpoints during vertebrate embryogenesis are discrete, well-defined transition events. In conclusion, this first large-scale single-cell based analysis of time-resolved developmental data does not support a downhill rolling ball notion where cells decide their fate at discrete transition points. The temporal organization of an undulating developmental landscape appears to be more complex than initially conceptualized by Waddington. Therefore, it is of paramount interest to extend this type of analysis to other systems and to develop techniques to compute such landscape in a data-driven manner.

No description available.

No description available.