The effects of various dietary treatments on metabolic responses related to adrenal functions have been studied in growing white leghorn chickens. Birds fed a diet containing 20.9% of protein and deficient in lysine (.51%) showed higher plasma c0rticoster0ne concentrations, increased adrenal size, and increased oxygen consumption compared with birds fed a diet of similar protein content and adequate in lysine (1.11%). Birds fed the lysine-deficient diet showed more exploratory behaviour when placed on a grid than did the birds fed the diet supplemented with lysine. They took a longer time, however, to locate feed in a maze. Thiouracil with hypervitaminosis e, administered to birds through the diet, increased the concentration of corticosterone in the plasma. Hypervitaminosis e did not affect the concentration of corticosterone in the plasma. The concentration of c0rticoster0ne was similar in the plasma of chicks reared at 13 and 24°c. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Male and female broiler-type chicks were subjected to different periods of dietary restriction between the ages of 0 and 14 weeks of age. Feed was restricted during this period of time by limiting feed consumption to 30 minutes of feeding per day. Growth rate of the birds and mature body weights were measured. The proportion of organs and tissues, and adipocyte diameter and number in the retroperitoneal and M. sartorius depots were determined in mature female birds subjected to the different periods of dietary restriction. The following summarizes the findings: 1. Male and female birds subjected to different periods of dietary restriction from 0-14 weeks of age had similar body weights at the end of any given period of feed restriction. However, following ad libitum feeding, the male birds previously subjected to different periods of dietary restrictions, grew at a greater rate and obtained a greater final body weight than did the females. 2. Dietary restriction increased mortality in both male and female birds. There was, however, no sex difference in mortality in response to the early dietary restriction. Cropbound birds and birds with leg weakness accounted for most of the mortality. Dietary restriction from 0-12 and from 0-14 weeks of age caused significant decreases in the mature body weights of female birds. The lighter weights appeared to be due to a reduction in the growth of all tissues since the proportional -weights of the M. pectoralis major, liver, tibiotarsus, retroperitoneal and M. sartorius adipose depots were similar in the restricted and the control birds. The tibiotarsus and the M. sartorius adipose depot were the tissues most sensitive to the dietary restriction. Since the weight of the retroperitoneal adipose depot was not significantly affected by dietary restriction, there may be differences in the responses of the retroperitoneal depot and the M. sartorius depot, to early dietary restriction. Determining the average, retroperitoneal adipocyte diameter at 17-19 weeks and 40-43 weeks of age, revealed that adipocyte enlargement in the retroperitoneal depot occurred in all treatments between the) two ages. Adipocytes from the retroperitoneal depot were significantly larger than adipocytes from the M. sartorius depot regardless of dietary treatment. Dietary restriction reduced the average adipocyte diameter in the retroperitoneal and the M. sartorius depots of birds subjected to dietary restriction from 0-12 and from 0-14 weeks of^age; and the effect on cell size was still apparent at 40-43 weeks of age. 7. Adipocyte cellularity in the M. sartorius depot was similar for all treatments studied, indicating that the number of adipocytes in this depot was unaffected by early dietary restriction. In the retroperitoneal depot, however, birds restricted from 0-12 and from 0-14 weeks of age had significantly more adipocytes than did the control birds. Whether this increase in observable adipocytes reflected an increase in adipocyte cellularity or an increase in the lipid-filling of pre-adipocytes is not clear from this study The difference in response to early dietary restriction exhibited by the retroperitoneal and the M. sartorius depots may reflect a greater propensity of adipocytes in the retroperitoneal depot to multiply. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Unknown

Chicks were utilized in a study to estimate mineral (Ca, P, Mg, Mn, Cu and Zn) availability of 10 meat meal samples processed in 10 consecutive days. A balance procedure was used to determine availability in which a correction for endogenous mineral was utilized. Results of this study indicate that calcium and phosphorus are highly available from meat meals with values of 90% and 93.4% respectively. Magnesium, manganese, zinc and copper are also well utilized with an average of 83.9%, 73.1%, 79.4% and 74%, respectively. Variations in availability of minerals particularly phosphorus, copper and zinc were observed among meat meal samples tested. This indicates that raw material used in day to day manufacturing of the meals are different; also, phosphorus might exist in different forms from one meal to another. Availability values observed in this study indicate that meat meal is an excellent source of available minerals. The important mineral (Ca, P, Mg, Mn, Cu and Zn) content was determined in blood meal, feather meal, fish meal and meat meal. These availability studies utilized the broiler chick (three weeks of age) in a mineral balance procedure. Results of mineral content showed a wide range in Ca (2.1-84.0 mg/g), P (1.9-54.0 mg/g), Mg (12.5-68.0 mg/kg), Cu (8.3-22.4 mg/kg) and Zn (22.7-1 50 mg/kg). The range in concentration of Mg among samples was narrow (1.3-2.7 mg/g). Blood meal was the lowest in all minerals except Cu. Fish meal #1 and fish meal #2 or meat meal were the highest in these minerals. Significant variation was observed in availability of each mineral among animal protein concentrates tested. Average availability of Ca, P, Mg, Mn, Cu and Zn was 88.3, 87.6, 80.8, 71.7, 73.2 and 76.8, respectively. Studies were conducted with broiler chicks to compare the availability of phosphorus from feather meal, blood meal, meat meal and fish meal using different assay techniques. A standard curve was drawn by plotting the growth rate and percentage of tibia ash obtained at various levels of added dicalcium phosphate (Reference diet). The biological availability of phosphorus for animal protein concentrates was calculated from the standard graph. When body weight was used as a criteria the comparative availability of phosphorus from feather meal, blood meal, meat meal (L), meat meal (H) and fish meal was found to be 91%, 112%, 118%, 123% and 125%, respectively. The comparative availability of phosphorus from feather meal, blood meal, meat meal (L), meat meal (H) and fish meal when percentage of tibia ash was used as a criteria was found to be 84%, 98%, 112%, 121%, 121%, respectively. The percentage of tibia ash obtained with test phosphate was divided by the percentage of tibia ash obtained with standard phosphate. When this method was used to calculate the comparative availability of phosphorus from feather meal, blood meal, meat meal (L), meat meal (H) and fish meal, the calculated values were found to be 85%, 90.5%, 94.7%, 97.3% and 97.3%, respectively. The availability of phosphorus from feather meal, blood meal, meat meal (L), meat meal (H) and fish meal was calculated using mineral balance procedure and was found to be 72.5%, 88%, 92%, 95%, 95.3%, respectively. This study indicates that variation in the procedure used to determine phosphorus availability from animal protein sources may influence data. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Content and availability of nutrients in ten wheat feed screening samples were determined using day old broiler chicks. The metabolizable energy (ME) value of wheat feed screenings (WFS)in a balanced diet was significantly (P > 0.05) higher than wheat which was used as a control diet. Growth performance of all WFS samples were higher than control diet. Diets one, two, four, seven, ten and eleven had feed efficiency ratipswhich were significantly (P > 0.05) higher than the control diet. The total average availability of sixteen amino acids in these feedstuffs ranged from 66% (control) to 84% (diet three). Among limiting essential amino acids, lysine was significantly (P > 0.05) higher (83%) in availability followed by threonine (67%) and methionine (64%). The average availability of the studied chemical elements (Ca, P, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn) ranged from 59% (Zn) to 84% (Cu). Among the chemical nutrients tested, copper (84.28%) was the highest to be followed by manganese (76.57%) and phosphorus (74.14%) and the least was zinc (59%) in availability value. The results of these studies indicated that WFS has an acceptable potential to replace wheat with reasonable margin of profit to the producer. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Content and availability of nutrients in four vegetable protein supplements (palm kernel, soybean, cottonseed and rapeseed meals) were determined using growing chicks. Average availability of sixteen amino acids in these feedstuffs ranged from 84.5% (palm kernel meal) to 97.3% (soybean meal). Palm kernel meal was lowest and soybean meal highest in content of essential amino acids. Results of mineral availability (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, zinc and copper) indicated high content and availability of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium; low content and availability of zinc and copper. Average availability of minerals varied from 50.0% (palm kernel meal) to 74.3% (soybean meal). Among mineral elements tested, phosphorus (78.0%) and calcium (72.6%) showed the highest availability while zinc (44.0%) was least available. Crude fibre and phytic acid were implicated as factors depressing availability of minerals tested. Crude fibre content was inversely related to availability of all six minerals tested while phytic acid content significantly (P^O.01) affected availability of phosphorus, calcium, zinc and magnesium. Metabolizable energy (ME) of the feedstuffs determined using three week old broiler chicks, ranged from 1957 kcal/kg dry matter (rapeseed meal) to 2796 kcal/kg dry matter (palm kernel meal). Chemical constituents, available carbohydrate and metabolizable energy content of seven different rapeseed meals were determined. Metabolizable energy values ranged from 1492 kcal/kg (Span A) to 1957 kcal/kg (commercial RSM). Of all chemical constituents tested, ether extract, sugar and starch content were most significantly (P«%0.01) related to metabolizable energy and were incorporated into equations to predict ME of rapeseed meal from their chemical constituents. Content and availability of six minerals (Ca, P, Mg, Mn, Zn, Cu) were determined using the test rapeseed meals. Samples were high in calcium, phosphorus and magnesium and low in copper in comparison to other vegetable protein supplements. Average availability of minerals ranged from 52.2% (Span A) to 64.0% (commercial RSM). Among minerals tested, phosphorus (75.3%), copper (74.3%) and calcium (68.0%) showed the highest availabilities. Zinc was least available (44.1%). Treatment of palm kernel meal with 3%, 5% or 7% NaOH in an attempt to delignify the material and improve its nutritive value, caused a reduction in protein, acid detergent fibre and acid detergent lignin content of the meal. There was considerable amino acid destruction, the extent being directly related to the severity of the alkali treatment. Incorporation of alkali-treated meal -at 30% level into broiler starter rations depressed growth rate and feed efficiency of chicks. Inclusion of palm kernel meal at 10%, 20% or 30% into a standard broiler starter diet significantly (P«»0.05) increased average daily gain of chicks over controls. Highest growth rate and feed efficiency were observed in chicks on the 10% PKM ration. Increased level of PKM incorporation slightly depressed feed efficiency but not growth rate of chicks. The need for increased utilization of vegetable protein supplements in chick rations especially in the developing countries was discussed. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

Thesis (M. Sc. Agriculture (Agronomy)) -- University of Limpopo, 2016. / Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) is an important annual leguminous crop in semi-arid and tropics, where it is mainly grown for consumption and livestock feeding. The crop has good morphological and biochemical qualities which make it well adapted to the semi-arid and tropics. However, farmers in South Africa currently lack good seed for planting and experience very low cowpea grain yields. The aim of this study was to evaluate 97 newly introduced cowpea germplasm for adaptation and yield parameters. The study was conducted in two locations in Limpopo Province, with each location having two experiments, experiment I consisted of 57 early maturing cowpea germplasm, and experiment II consisted of 40 medium maturing cowpea germplasm, these materials were introduced from IITA, Nigeria and A&M University, Texas, USA. Both with one local check (Glenda). The first location was at Ukulima Farm near Modimolle in the Waterberg district during 2012/13 and the second was at University of Limpopo experimental farm Syferkuil during 2013/14 summer-planting season. The experiments were laid out as an incomplete randomized block design (lattice design), consisting of 3 replications, four rows per plot with intra row spacing of 25 cm and inter row spacing of 75 cm. Each row was 4m long. The following agronomic variables were collected, in both locations; plant height, number of pods per plant, pod length, number of seed per pod, number of branches, hundred seed weight and grain and fodder yield. Data was subjected to ANOVA using statistical software, Statistic 9.2. The variances of the parameters measured were summarized in ANOVA table. The treatments that showed significant difference were separated using Duncan Multiple Range at 5% level of significance. The result showed significant difference (P<0.05) among cowpea varieties for the following yield parameters; plant height, number pods per plant, number of branches, seed weight, pod weight and hundred seed weight. In experiment I the mean plant height, number of branches, mean pod length, total pod weight, weight of seeds per pod, hundred seed weight and number of seed per pod were respectively (100 cm, 21, 23 cm, 1413.4 kg/ha, 1121.62 kg/ha, 28.283g and 16) and were greater than the control Glenda (49 cm, 15, 14 cm, 777.82 kg/ha, 622.87 kg/ha, 13.300 g and 13). In vi experiment II the mean plant height, number of branches, mean pod length, total pod weight, weight of seeds per pod, hundred seed weight and number of seed per pod were respectively (97 cm, 21, 21 cm, 1546.19 kg/ha, 1245.11 kg/ha, 27.363 g and 16) and these were better than the control, Glenda (50 cm, 15, 17 cm, 795.11kg/ha, 661.01 kg/ha, 18.393 g and 13). Weight per 100 seeds showed that 51 and 32 breeding lines had weights higher than Glenda in the early and medium maturity trials, respectively. The evaluated cowpea varieties varied in performance between the two locations. The above results indicate the superiority of the introduced breeding over the local check as well as the potentials of using these promising lines for the development of better adapted germplasm in South Africa. The lines with better agronomic characters and yield performance in the two locations are recommended for seed production to meet the immediate needs of farmers, after due registration with DAFF at Pretoria. Data generated from the studies will contribute useful information to the data-base of the characteristics of these cowpea lines. Key words: Evaluation, Cowpea germplasm, Adaptation, Vigna unguiculata. / AgriLIFE A&M University of Texas USA, National Research Foundation (NRF) and ARC/IITA

“Capski Ají Amarillo en Almíbar” es un producto con el objetivo de brindar a sus consumidores el mejor producto aperitivo “ready to eat”, listo para comer, elaborado en base al ají amarillo el cual capte la preferencia en el consumo para eventos como reuniones familiares, con amigos, entre otros, siguiendo una tendencia de alimentación saludable. Los “ready to eat” en Lima van ganando cada vez más seguidores pues propone alimentación saludable, pero sobre todo de fácil consumo que revaloriza tanto a los productos como a los productores nacionales y locales, su composición. Este producto es 100% ecológico y bajo altos estándares de calidad, elaborado con insumos provenientes de diversos productores locales y nacionales; asimismo nuestro producto tiene el respaldo de expertos en calidad y en la gastronomía enfocada en productos ready to eat. Las entrevistas y degustaciones realizadas a diferentes consumidores ayudaron a evaluar y concluir que el producto es bueno para el mercado objetivo debido a la gran acogida que causo en ferias y degustaciones en tiendas saludables. Asimismo, las características mencionadas están presentes en “Capski” por lo cual su desempeño en el mercado limeño puede ser replicable a nivel nacional e internacional. / "Capski, Ají Amarillo en Almíbar" is a product with the objective of providing its consumers with the best "ready to eat" snack product, prepared based on yellow chili pepper that captures the preference in consumption for events such as family reunions, with friends, among others, following a healthy eating trend. The "ready to eat" in Lima are gaining more and more followers because it proposes healthy food, but above all easy consumption that revalue both products and national and local producers, its composition. This product is 100% organic and under high quality standards, made with inputs from various local and national producers; Our product also has the support of experts in quality and gastronomy focused on ready-to-eat products. The interviews and tastings made to different consumers helped to evaluate and conclude that the product is good for the target market due to the great reception it caused in fairs and tastings in healthy stores. Likewise, the characteristics are present in “Capski”, so that their performance in the Lima market can be replicated nationally and internationally. / Trabajo de investigación

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