Poverty has been a challenge for many years and continues to exist in many parts of the world, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. In many countries, poverty reduction programmes remain the main preoccupation in economic policies. Poverty is not gender neutral, as women tend to be more likely exposed to poverty because of their restricted access to labour and other markets and their general lower level of education than men. This study aimed at investigating the relationship between gender and poverty in a South African township of Kwakwatsi. The study used the Lived Poverty Index (LPI) as a measurement of poverty to analyse the extent and level of access to basic necessities among inhabitants of Kwakwatsi. The major focus of this study was on comparing the poverty status between female-headed and male-headed households. It was also important to investigate the relationship between poverty status and demographic and socio-economic variables. A literature review of poverty indicates a multidimensional concept, with a need to be untangled from different perspectives. Poverty includes lack of factors such as food, income, sanitation facilities, shelter, health care, safe drinking water, education and information. The empirical portion of the study was based on data from a survey questionnaire with a sample of 225 households selected randomly from Kwakwatsi Township in April 2013. Various quantitative methods, including Principal Component Analysis (PCA), descriptive analysis (such as means core, cross tabulation and frequency tables) and regression analysis, were used to identify the level of access to basic necessities and how this access is influenced by identified demographic and socioeconomic variables among both female-headed and male-headed households. The LPI was used to assess people’s ability to secure income, food, fuel for cooking, electricity, clean water for home use and access to medicines and medical treatment. PCA indicated that all six items of basic necessities could be loaded into one component of LPI, indicating that the measure was adequate for the study. Households headed by females seemed to be poorer (53.62%) than those headed by males (45.51%), implying that female-headed households appeared more likely to experience the lack of basic necessities than male-headed households. Access to basic necessities such as medicines or medical treatment, water, electricity and fuel. The relationship between gender and poverty in a South African township for cooking have an effect on the quality of life. Access to medicines and medical treatment remains a lingering challenge for the inhabitants of Kwakwatsi, especially in female-headed households. Regarding the employment status of the participants, the unemployment rate of the head was found to be slightly higher for male heads than female heads, but the total number of employed people within a household was found to be less in households headed by females compare to those headed by males. The average total income in female-headed households was found to be lower than that of male-headed households. To add to this, a high number of female heads work in the informal sector, with low wages and poor working conditions. This was found to be associated with a higher level of illiteracy among female household heads, thus making it difficult for them to compete in the formal labour market. Deprivation levels were seen to decrease with the number of employed persons in female-headed households, while this was the opposite in male-headed households. The number of household members was found to increase with the poverty level in female-headed households, while there was no effect among male-headed households. Married male household heads were found to have less access to basic necessities than unmarried ones, while the relationship was the opposite where female married household heads appeared to have less access to basic necessities than those who are not married. Overall, descriptive analysis revealed that female-headed households tend to be deprived from stable and sustainable access to basic necessities. The results of the regression analysis showed that the number of household members who are employed, household head’s income and other income of the household are significant predictors of poverty in Kwakwatsi. The study recommends that the gender gap in income can be alleviated by empowering women labourers through collective action and increase of vocational education and training for better skills. There is a need for using public works programmes efficiently in order to address the problem of low income in the area. Furthermore, the importance of the informal sectors of the economy, especially in low income areas, should be acknowledged because it seems to be an important source of income for the residents of Kwakwatsi. Finally, there is a need to improve primary health care provision for the township of Kwakwatsi. The relationship between gender and poverty in a South African township / MCom (Economics), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

Unemployment is the most popular indicator of the country’s economy. As popular as it is, it remains difficult to define and to measure. This is the reason why different economists have different views of where South Africa really is as far as the unemployment rate is concerned. Female unemployment in South Africa is relatively high and much attention should be given on that issue. Some females are uneducated; others lack the skills while others are discouraged due to lack of vacant positions within their area. The consequences of unemployment are devastating and remain one of the most significant challenges for South Africa (Naude & Serumaga-Zake, 2001:261). These consequences range from decreased standards of living to degradation of society as a whole through crime, and community unrest (Barker, 1995:113). This study aims to investigate the factors that have an influence on the employment status of females in Bophelong Township, to determine if variables such as age, marital status, education level and income have any causal effect on the employment status of females. The results of this study will then help policy makers to create and design strategies that will help achieve the objective of unemployment reduction. / MCom (Economics) North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

In an expansive feminist literature on gender and development, scholarly research on widows and widowhood remains limited, particularly within the context of Nepal. While there are some important exceptions, existing work reinforces stereotypes of widows as old and poor victims, and widowhood as essentially a marginalised and vulnerable status. This thesis seeks to confront such homogenous views and to 'rewrite' widowhood. In particular, it explores the diverse experiences of widowhood through the adoption of an intersectional life-course lens, conceptualises well-being from the embedded perspective of widows and examines the complex ways in which widowed women assert agency. This thesis is born out of a longstanding academic engagement with Nepali widows. Based upon ethnographic qualitative research, the study involved two periods of intensive research in the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal. The research was operationalised through a triangulation of qualitative methods resulting in a rich evidence base of eighty-one semi-structured interviews, eighteen oral histories, five focus groups and ten key informant interviews. This research shows that that widowhood is more complex than much of the scholarship to date suggests. Key findings include the particular salience of age, caste and the life course in shaping experiences of widowhood. It demonstrates that while widows' understandings of well-being can be categorised as material, perceptual and relational, relationships with children, family and the wider community in which they live underpin all of these. This research also uncovered widows' complicated and contradictory enactments of agency that can be placed on a 'resisting-conforming' continuum, and are shaped by gendered cultural norms, eschatological beliefs, temporality and intersectional identities. This thesis contributes to more nuanced empirical and theoretical understandings of widows and widowhood, intersectionality well-being and agency.

There is a plethora of development literature, both academic and policy oriented, that problematises female-headed households in normative ways, positioning them as socially isolated, stigmatised, lacking in agency and poor, equated with the ‘feminisation of poverty’. Through positioning female-headed households as ‘other’ there is also a notable lack of regard for the diverse socio-political and cultural context which within female-headed households reside. By situating this research within a feminist postdevelopment framework, and through the use of participatory methodologies and the articulation of individual biographies of the development experience, this dissertation seeks to re-position our understanding of the development experience of female-headed households. Drawing on the case of Samoa, this study demonstrates how fa’asamoa (the Samoan way), inclusive of fa’amatai (customary system of governance), the feagaiga (brother/sister relationship) and the practice of fa’alavelave (demonstrating love and concern), all support the welfare and wellbeing of female-headed households, including any children born of these households. They also afford women in female-headed households a certain level of voice and agency. The thesis further highlights that the category of female-headed households was not well understood within Samoa because neither villagers nor policy makers labelled women in this way. Rather, women were recognised in relation to the cultural framework of fa’asamoa which situates them in terms of their position within their family, their natal village and the wider community. This illustrates the importance of culture when attempting to frame the development experiences of female-headed households in any part of the world. Development researchers and practitioners need to seriously question just how useful the practice of categorising and labelling is to Development Studies. In highlighting the problematic nature of universal labels and categories, this thesis concludes that the starting point of analysis for female-headed households needs to begin with the sociopolitical-cultural context, as opposed to the category of female-headed households. Shifting beyond a desire to uncritically categorise and label will provide a space for envisioning new approaches to development thinking and practice, and for truly seeing the ways that people struggle, often successfully, to create and pursue opportunities.

Poverty has been a challenge for many years and continues to exist in many parts of the world, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. In many countries, poverty reduction programmes remain the main preoccupation in economic policies. Poverty is not gender neutral, as women tend to be more likely exposed to poverty because of their restricted access to labour and other markets and their general lower level of education than men. This study aimed at investigating the relationship between gender and poverty in a South African township of Kwakwatsi. The study used the Lived Poverty Index (LPI) as a measurement of poverty to analyse the extent and level of access to basic necessities among inhabitants of Kwakwatsi. The major focus of this study was on comparing the poverty status between female-headed and male-headed households. It was also important to investigate the relationship between poverty status and demographic and socio-economic variables. A literature review of poverty indicates a multidimensional concept, with a need to be untangled from different perspectives. Poverty includes lack of factors such as food, income, sanitation facilities, shelter, health care, safe drinking water, education and information. The empirical portion of the study was based on data from a survey questionnaire with a sample of 225 households selected randomly from Kwakwatsi Township in April 2013. Various quantitative methods, including Principal Component Analysis (PCA), descriptive analysis (such as means core, cross tabulation and frequency tables) and regression analysis, were used to identify the level of access to basic necessities and how this access is influenced by identified demographic and socioeconomic variables among both female-headed and male-headed households. The LPI was used to assess people’s ability to secure income, food, fuel for cooking, electricity, clean water for home use and access to medicines and medical treatment. PCA indicated that all six items of basic necessities could be loaded into one component of LPI, indicating that the measure was adequate for the study. Households headed by females seemed to be poorer (53.62%) than those headed by males (45.51%), implying that female-headed households appeared more likely to experience the lack of basic necessities than male-headed households. Access to basic necessities such as medicines or medical treatment, water, electricity and fuel. The relationship between gender and poverty in a South African township for cooking have an effect on the quality of life. Access to medicines and medical treatment remains a lingering challenge for the inhabitants of Kwakwatsi, especially in female-headed households. Regarding the employment status of the participants, the unemployment rate of the head was found to be slightly higher for male heads than female heads, but the total number of employed people within a household was found to be less in households headed by females compare to those headed by males. The average total income in female-headed households was found to be lower than that of male-headed households. To add to this, a high number of female heads work in the informal sector, with low wages and poor working conditions. This was found to be associated with a higher level of illiteracy among female household heads, thus making it difficult for them to compete in the formal labour market. Deprivation levels were seen to decrease with the number of employed persons in female-headed households, while this was the opposite in male-headed households. The number of household members was found to increase with the poverty level in female-headed households, while there was no effect among male-headed households. Married male household heads were found to have less access to basic necessities than unmarried ones, while the relationship was the opposite where female married household heads appeared to have less access to basic necessities than those who are not married. Overall, descriptive analysis revealed that female-headed households tend to be deprived from stable and sustainable access to basic necessities. The results of the regression analysis showed that the number of household members who are employed, household head’s income and other income of the household are significant predictors of poverty in Kwakwatsi. The study recommends that the gender gap in income can be alleviated by empowering women labourers through collective action and increase of vocational education and training for better skills. There is a need for using public works programmes efficiently in order to address the problem of low income in the area. Furthermore, the importance of the informal sectors of the economy, especially in low income areas, should be acknowledged because it seems to be an important source of income for the residents of Kwakwatsi. Finally, there is a need to improve primary health care provision for the township of Kwakwatsi. The relationship between gender and poverty in a South African township / MCom (Economics), North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

Unemployment is the most popular indicator of the country’s economy. As popular as it is, it remains difficult to define and to measure. This is the reason why different economists have different views of where South Africa really is as far as the unemployment rate is concerned. Female unemployment in South Africa is relatively high and much attention should be given on that issue. Some females are uneducated; others lack the skills while others are discouraged due to lack of vacant positions within their area. The consequences of unemployment are devastating and remain one of the most significant challenges for South Africa (Naude & Serumaga-Zake, 2001:261). These consequences range from decreased standards of living to degradation of society as a whole through crime, and community unrest (Barker, 1995:113). This study aims to investigate the factors that have an influence on the employment status of females in Bophelong Township, to determine if variables such as age, marital status, education level and income have any causal effect on the employment status of females. The results of this study will then help policy makers to create and design strategies that will help achieve the objective of unemployment reduction. / MCom (Economics) North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2014

M.A. / The adoption of cost-recovery policies by local government in South Africa is an effort to recover costs from the investments made in infrastructure expansion and to ensure efficient delivery of services. This study came about from the need to understand the paradox of continued adoption of cost-recovery policies in a country that faces high poverty and unemployment rates. The focus of this study is to find out what are the social impacts of the water cost-recovery policy on the livelihood of female-headed households. The first chapter is the background to the study. The main concepts of cost-recovery, female-headed households and livelihoods are defined. In addition, the demographic, social and economic description of Ward 77 in City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality which is the focus of this study is provided. The second chapter is a review of literature behind the rationale of cost-recovery and its implication in South Africa. In addition, the livelihoods framework is explored. The third chapter addresses the methodological approach used to undertake this study. Qualitative methods were used, in the form of in-depth interviews with stakeholders, documentary reviews as well as a focus group and interviews with female-headed households. The fourth chapter is the discussion of findings arising from the consolidation of data. We find out about the livelihoods of the households before and after the implementation of cost-recovery and the effects this has had on the household. The final chapter is an analysis of these findings along the themes of the study namely the social impact of water cost-recovery on the wellbeing of the household, the impact on household financial security, the impact on social networks and the impact on educational spending. The study concludes by pointing out that, although there has been advancement in infrastructure development and service provided, the poor in urban townships continue to be negatively impacted by cost-recovery policies. Policy makers should consult communities in formulating approaches that tackle the issues of rights and affordability of basic services such as water. With the country’s high poverty and unemployment levels, cost-recovery would only be effective if the incomes of households are increased. Thus policy makers must take into account the socio-economic situation of a population to ensure the inclusion of all in the formulation of policies.

This study is based on data from in-depth individual interviews carried out in a poor township, Ngangelizwe in Mthatha, South Africa. It discusses and describes the livelihoods and strategies of low–income households headed by elderly (>60years old) women. The study draws primarily on interviews with 15 elderly women who are receiving or not receiving State pension, selling goods or receiving or not receiving a Child Support Grant from the government for their grandchildren in order to meet the daily challenges they are faced with. It discusses the cultivation of social networks and how these networks in turn impact on the livelihoods, health, survival and social adjustment of the elderly women. This includes reports of these women’s perceptions of poverty, their incomes (the majority (thirteen) were receiving a State pension) as well as a professional pension. The study also reports on the strategies they used to try and avoid poverty through participation in income generating activities, having their grandchildren engaging in income-earning activities mostly after school or during holidays. The study underscores the reality of the adjustments and coping measures that the women have to adopt when faced with new challenges as a result of high morbidity and mortality among adults in the reproductive age groups. The findings of this study indicate that for most women, the inability to attain basic essentials of life leads to loss of self-dignity. Socio-economic factors such as low levels of education, unemployment, little or no income, poor access to resources, many dependants and looking after their children who suffer from HIV/AIDS among the women create a situation where they operate within the “little opportunities” circle. The evidence in this study suggests that social support groups, a pension grant, a child support grant and remittances from their children helped to mitigate some of the poverty experiences of the elderly women. The study also shows that there is a dire need for intensification of poverty reduction programmes at community levels. Women have to be supported with institutional credit to grow and expand their businesses. They need the support and assistance of government in taking care of their sick children and grandchildren due to HIV/AIDS. / Dissertation (MSocSci)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Sociology / unrestricted

In the last half century, gun ownership has been one of the most hotly debated topics in the United States. The right to bear arms was written into the U. S. Constitution and into the hearts and minds of its citizens. During the last half century, however, numerous gun control laws have been enacted at Federal, state and local levels, and it can be argued (plausibly or not) that part of the legislative intent has been to decrease the number of gun owning households in the United States. For many decades, this number hovered at one half of all households (Wright, 1995). The possible success of these gun control efforts is suggested by an apparent and rather sharp decline in the ownership percentage beginning in the 1990s. In 2000, the household gun ownership rate had decreased to 32.5% (according to the General Social Survey). The question raised in this thesis is how to account for declining gun ownership. More specifically, I ask if there has in fact been a decline in ownership, or whether the apparent decline is an illusion resulting from changing demographics. A third possibility, that social norms have changed such that admitting gun ownership in surveys is now more problematic for many people, is also considered and seems, indeed, to be the most telling line of explanation.

Women are over-represented among the rural poor in developing countries, and the difficulties they face in raising themselves out of poverty are well established. This thesis examines how gender structures trade in local markets and forms of sociability in rural Ethiopia, using survey data from four rural communities and three local market places. Over 600 male and female farmers were surveyed, and qualitative data from interviews and observations was used to interpret and analyze the results. The thesis is in four parts: Part I introduces the research questions, and presents the theory and research methodology. The thesis posits that women’s access to resources is mediated via men, making it difficult for them to head their own households. Part II links the theoretical concepts to conditions in the field, showing how the the less valued activities are assigned to women, and develops a resource index that establishes the inequality in resource access. Part III proves that gender structures local markets and that the inequality in access to resources is reproduced in these. Yet trading offers an important livelihood for women, challenging their isolation and expanding their choices and markets are arenas in which they can exercise their agency. Part IV shows that local forms of sociability are also structured by gender and influence access to other resources. Density of social network ties and access to rural resources are strongly linked, particularly for female household heads. The final chapter shows how the gendered structure of local markets and sociability allows men to capitalize on resources more effectively than women. But women can carve out space and authority for themselves, lead local organizations and become active traders, and are actually less embedded in communities and more embedded in markets than men. The thesis problematizes the livelihood options open to female household heads, and how they balance these between markets and communities. The thesis concludes that future attempts to strengthen local markets and institutions must acknowledge that women and men face different constraints and opportunities. Women's room for maneuver could then translate into real empowerment.