published_or_final_version / Sociology / Master / Master of Social Sciences

D. Litt. et Phil. / The aim of this study was to develop a comprehensive framework for the rehabilitative needs of female offenders, through the use of Grounded Theory methodology. The framework took the form of a two-axis structure, with axis one encompassing the management of prisons and staff, and axis two dealing with the management and rehabilitation of prisoners. Axis two was conceptualised as a sequence of stages from the start of imprisonment until post-release. The framework is offered as a holistic structure for the development and integration of rehabilitative programmes. The framework is anticipated to assist in obtaining additional funding and support from the business community in order to make rehabilitative programmes available to a greater number of prisoners. The framework may also enable individuals and companies to determine where the specific resources at their disposal could be put to use with the greatest effect.

Mentoring has become increasingly popular in recent years in the criminal justice system, and has been recommended by the Scottish Government as a service that can address the specific ‘needs’ of women who offend. Despite the popularity of mentoring, there has been limited evidence to suggest that it reduces reoffending of women, or facilitates significant changes in their lives. In addition, there has been a lack of clarity around the definition of mentoring, including role definition, the extent of intensive support offered and the key aims of the service. This thesis (in collaboration with Sacro and the University of Stirling), explores the experiences of women who have accessed the Sacro Women’s Mentoring Service and accounts from mentors and staff to establish what the key aims and processes of mentoring are, alongside a critique of whether this offers an approach that can address key issues related to the marginalisation of these women. Findings from the data revealed that mentoring consisted of practical support, helping women to respond to difficulties related to poverty and their disadvantaged circumstances generally. The most common outcomes for women were: engagement with agencies; increases in confidence and self-esteem and improvements in emotional well-being. The rhetoric of mentoring offered by mentors and staff suggested that mentoring was based on an individualistic approach that contained responsibilising strategies, aimed at helping women to make improved choices and become responsible citizens. In practice, however, mentors were helping women to resolve issues related to the welfare system and other services outwith the criminal justice system. Many mentors and staff viewed mentoring as role modelling, however, women who accessed the service were more likely to view their mentor as a friend and ‘someone to talk to’ suggesting that the relationship was not an opportunity for women to model the behaviours of their mentor, but as emotional support and a release from their social isolation. This disconnect was also reflected in ‘imaginary penalities’ which were observed, such as staff completing paperwork they did not view as relevant to the service they delivered or staff being sent on training that they could not apply to the work they delivered on a day to day basis. This may be a result of the increasing marketisation of mentoring within the criminal justice system. Those services labelled as ‘mentoring’ may be more likely to gain funding as it is a service that is currently favoured by statutory funders in Scotland. If positive outcomes of mentoring are viewed by policy makers to be the result of an individualistic approach, and not mentors addressing problems outwith the criminal justice system, as best as they can, then this takes responsibility away from the state to make changes to policy. It also places unrealistic expectations on mentors to make significant changes to the lives of women in an environment of continuing funding cuts to welfare and services.

As a consequence of increased awareness and the current scholarly debate regarding women's differential predictors of recidivism, criminal justice agencies are working with researchers in the field to expand their knowledge in this area. In 2007, Portland State University researchers in collaboration with the Oregon Department of Corrections conducted an investigation of factors emerging in the pathways and gender responsive literature as predictive of women's recidivism in a randomly selected sample of female (n=150) and male (n=150) inmates. This study used information gathered from that investigation for two purposes: (1) to assess the prevalence rates of victimization experiences (childhood, adolescent and adulthood), substance abuse and mental health diagnosis across male and female ODOC inmates, and (2) to assess the predictive nature of victimization experiences, substance abuse and mental health diagnoses on recidivism across gender after a three year period. Findings suggest that females suffered from higher rates of victimization experiences throughout their lifetime than male ODOC inmates and higher rates of DSM-IV-TR mood and anxiety diagnosis. Similar rates were found across gender when assessing substance abuse and diagnosis of co-occurring disorders. When assessing the predictive impact of victimization, substance abuse and mental health diagnosis on recidivism this study found support for both gender neutral and gender responsive perspectives.

Thesis (MTech(Education))--Cape Technikon, Cape Town, 1999 / Imprisonment is imposed on increasing numbers of women. Women on trial are also spending time in prisons. It is accepted that crime must be punished but it should and can simultaneously be transformed so that human potential can develop into learning opportunities. Personal interest and empathy with imprisoned women served as motivation for this study; the starting-point being a further conviction that such women have already been punished when starting to serve their sentence and that imprisonment should from then on focus on rehabilitation. The question is what learning opportunities are created for women in prisons, and if insufficient as far as individual needs are concerned, what can be done to facilitate and/or contribute to rehabilitation and the subsequent re-admittance to society upon discharge. Two empirical studies were undertaken in order to obtain the data identified in a situation analysis. A national survey was undertaken in the first place with the aid of the Chief of Training, Department of Correctional Services, in order to determine the training available. The finding provided in Chapter Two of this thesis, shows such opportunities to be rare and unstructured. In comparison with that available to male prisoners, it is indeed quite insufficient and even ineffective. In addition to this general national survey, visits were made to Western Cape prisons where ladies were held. Interviews were conducted with the latter as well as with control officers. Specific needs were identified, which, together with the first survey, enabled the researcher to make meaningful recommendations. Chapter Three of this study was devoted to programme design, a curriculum model was implemented in order 10 provide structure 10 the above data, and aspects of human reality was utilised as criterium. A summary and recommendations for improved learning opportunities for female persons complete the study. Criteria for the design of training programmes are provided and specific mention is made of the role of the National Qualification Framework and accreditation of leaming outcomes in the form of unit standards. It is hoped that the above will make a difference, not only as far as the rehabilitation of women in prisons is concerned, but also with regard to the manager(s) of the learning opportunities as well as the women to enable them to make a positive change to their living environment upon discharge

This research explores whether women offenders who committed property crimes suffer from feminization of poverty, and social deprivations as asserted by the economic marginalization theory. Social deprivations include being a single parent with dependent children at home, being the main financial supporter of a household and being primary caretaker to minor children.

Most studies in South Africa focus on male offenders as they make up the majority of the offending population. With female offenders being in the minority, they receive less of the research attention. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore the subjective experience of finding employment with a criminal record from the perspectives of six female former offenders who participated in the study. Participants were asked to share their accounts during semi-structured interviews. The transcripts were analysed using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis. A total of nine themes were identified, namely; confronting the labour market; it affected my life not my chances; experiences of vocational skills and labour in corrections; current financial status versus previous financial status; those left behind: the impact of incarceration on the family. I am Human too, entering and adjusting in the correctional system, finding God and oneself, and rehabilitation and reintegration programmes. The findings showed that the experience of incarceration cannot be separated from the experience of adjusting back into society and finding employment. Employment and unemployment had an effect on participants’ financial status but also affected self-esteem and the relationship with family. The findings illustrated how participants used different coping methods to deal with not being able to find employment, dealing with the stigma attached to being a former offender as well as adjusting back into the community. The analyses from the interviews were compared to existing literature, thus creating a rich discussion. An overview of the discussion and some recommendations were provided and the limitations of the study were also taken into account. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

Text in English / While correctional centres are often associated with men, there is an increasing number of incarcerated women who have rehabilitation needs that are specific to their gender. Historically correctional centres have responded through offering rehabilitative programmes that stereotyped women offenders into socially constructed gender roles. Using a feminist criminology framework, the current study aimed to explore the subjective inner experience and meaning given by women classified as maximum security offenders to the rehabilitation processes in the Johannesburg Correctional Centre. Data was collected from 18 incarcerated women who are and were once classified as maximum offenders. A narrative analysis was used in understanding the data from the interviews. Women’s narratives in the current study reflect unique and common experiences with rehabilitation in the correctional centre. Being a maximum security offender presents a challenge of further perceived discrimination, alienation and isolation amongst women who describe limited involvement in rehabilitation as a result of this identity. Also highlighted in the study are challenges in implementing gender sensitive programming in a penal system infused with power dynamics; a discipline and punish narrative; patriarchy; binary view of gender and ethnocentrism. A continued reinforcement of traditional structures, systems and practices that seek to perpetuate gendered form of existence is also evident in the current study. Therefore, a need for the reformation of the correctional centre context and culture is suggested so as to respond in a manner that is not only gender sensitive, but also inclusive enough in recognising both in theory and in practice, the various locations of inequality in society that influence female criminality. The principle of Ubuntu demonstrated through caring, compassion and hospitability which empowers and edifies the other person through interrelatedness is one of the promising initiatives that can guide correctional centres and society in the implementation of gender sensitive programmes, while paying attention to the socio-cultural dynamics that influence women’s pathways to crime. / Psychology / D. Phil. (Psychology)

The purpose of this thesis is to examine the experiences of South African women prior to, during and after incarceration. The theoretical bases for this study include the general strain theory (GST), feminist pathways approach and Goffman’s “total institutions”. The study made use of a qualitative research design. In-depth interviews were conducted with a total of twenty female ex-prisoners, who were selected using snowball sampling, to obtain information about their experiences during the periods indicated. The findings of the study indicated that, in respect of the three periods mentioned, the participants cited their experiences during incarceration as the most prominent as they tended to dwell more on this phase of their lives than any other phase. This is, in fact, not surprising as their narratives portrayed their lives behind bars as having been traumatic with far-reaching consequences for their lives after their incarceration. The study found that some of the participants had histories of emotional and physical abuse before their offending behaviours. It emerged that consensual same-sex sexual relationships between females in South African prisons exist and that these relationships are, sometimes, accepted by the family members of the female inmates. The participants reported that coercive sexual relationships also take place in female prisons in South Africa. It was also reported that the conditions under which females are incarcerated are, for the most part, deplorable. It emerged that the female prisoners use a unique monetary system which is based mainly on the trade by barter system. In addition, the findings revealed that female inmates often experience daunting challenges upon their release from prison, including high rates of unemployment, stigma and discrimination, family breakdown and the psychological effects of imprisonment, all of which often compound the resolve of some of the participants to live crime-free lives. / Sociology / D.Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)

The purpose of this thesis is to examine the experiences of South African women prior to, during and after incarceration. The theoretical bases for this study include the general strain theory (GST), feminist pathways approach and Goffman’s “total institutions”. The study made use of a qualitative research design. In-depth interviews were conducted with a total of twenty female ex-prisoners, who were selected using snowball sampling, to obtain information about their experiences during the periods indicated. The findings of the study indicated that, in respect of the three periods mentioned, the participants cited their experiences during incarceration as the most prominent as they tended to dwell more on this phase of their lives than any other phase. This is, in fact, not surprising as their narratives portrayed their lives behind bars as having been traumatic with far-reaching consequences for their lives after their incarceration. The study found that some of the participants had histories of emotional and physical abuse before their offending behaviours. It emerged that consensual same-sex sexual relationships between females in South African prisons exist and that these relationships are, sometimes, accepted by the family members of the female inmates. The participants reported that coercive sexual relationships also take place in female prisons in South Africa. It was also reported that the conditions under which females are incarcerated are, for the most part, deplorable. It emerged that the female prisoners use a unique monetary system which is based mainly on the trade by barter system. In addition, the findings revealed that female inmates often experience daunting challenges upon their release from prison, including high rates of unemployment, stigma and discrimination, family breakdown and the psychological effects of imprisonment, all of which often compound the resolve of some of the participants to live crime-free lives. / Sociology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Sociology)